ILLUMINATION 

AND  ITS  DEVELOPMENT 
IN  THE  PRESENT  DAY 


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[Frontispiece] 


ILLUMINATION 

AND  ITS  DEVELOPMENT 
IN    THE    PRESENT    DAY 


BY 

SIDNEY  FARNSWORTH 


Illustrated    with    Drawings 
and  Diagrams  by  the  Author 


* 


NEW  S^S^^  YORK 
GEORGE  H.  DORAN  COMPANY 

79936 


Printed  in  Great  Britain 


•  m    •  • 


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0 


PREFACE 


This  book  is  the  outcome  of  a  series  of  articles  which 
appeared  in  Drawing  and  Design.     At  the  suggestion 
of  the   Editor   of   this   periodical,   the   whole   of   the 
chapters  originally  published  have  been  entirely  re- 
written and  considerably  enlarged  ;    at  the  same  time 
a  large  amount  of  quite  new  matter  has  been  added. 
The   additions   that   have   been   made   include   a 
chapter  on  the  development  of  writing  in  the  past, 
together  with  a  number  of  alphabets  based  on  historical 
>i    examples.     I  have  also  added  a  brief  sketch  of  the 
0V  history  of  Illumination,  as  I  felt  that  the  book  would 
not  be  complete  without  some  reference  to  this  side 
of  the  subject.     Some  attention  has  been  given   to 
*  the   colours   and   gilding   methods    of   the   mediaeval 
I  artists,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  notes  given  may  be 
^  of  interest  to  the  student.     Extensions  have  also  been 
made  in  connection  with  the  use  of  colours  and  materials 
by  the  student  to-day. 

Chapters  on  the  further  development  of  illumina- 
tion, the  illumination  of  the  printed  book,  and  printed 
book  decoration,  are  also  amongst  the  additions. 
The  chapters  on  the  application  of  lettering  and 
decoration  from  the  commercial  standpoint  have  also 
been  developed  considerably,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
book  some  notes  have  been  added  on  books  for  further 
study. 


2  PREFACE 

I  have  tried  to  write  in  as  simple  a  manner  as 
possible,  so  that  the  youngest  student  should  have  no 
difficulty  in  understanding  the  instructions  that  are 
given. 

So  many  books  have  been  written  on  the  subject 
of  Illumination  that  it  may  seem  quite  superfluous  to 
add  yet  another  to  the  long  list.  Still,  I  think  that  a 
work  treating  the  matter  from  the  present-day  stand- 
point ought  to  be  of  some  service  to  the  student  who 
is  desirous  of  practising  this  art  to-day. 

I  have  felt  for  some  time  past  that  there  was  a 
need  for  a  work  that  would  deal  with  the  various 
ways  in  which  this  art  could  be  applied  in  a  time  like 
the  present.  I  have  found  that  most  of  the  books 
that  have  been  written  on  Illumination  treat  the 
subject  either  from  the  standpoint  of  the  archaeologist 
or  merely  from  that  of  the  amateur.  It  is  simply  the 
result  of  a  sincere  desire  to  supply  what  I  feel  to  be 
a  real  need  that  this  book  has  been  written,  and  in 
the  hope  that  it  may  serve  as  a  handbook  and  guide 
for  the  serious  worker. 

It  has  not  been  written  with  the  idea  of  introducing 
a  quick  and  easy  method  of  becoming  expert  in  the 
art  of  illumination.  Success,  in  this,  as  in  anything 
else  of  importance,  can  come  only  through  hard  work. 

I  have  endeavoured  to  foster  interest  and  enthu- 
siasm, so  that  the  student  may  not  look  upon  the  hard 
work  entailed  with  this  subject  merely  as  a  certain 
amount  of  drudgery  to  be  got  through.  To  one  who 
is  keenly  interested  in  any  particular  study  hard  work 
often  becomes  a  pleasure,  and  it  is  only  when  such  is  the 
case  that  the  full  benefit  is  derived  from  such  study. 


PREFACE  3 

Illumination  has  a  value  in  the  present  day  as 
well  as  it  had  in  the  past.  The  developments  of  this 
art  are  seen  in  many  of  the  common-place  things  of 
to-day.  In  some  cases  the  development  has  been 
carried  so  far  as  to  lose  almost  its  identity  with  the 
original  craft  from  which  it  has  sprung,  but  the  con- 
nection is  there  all  the  same. 

The  art  of  the  book  began  with  the  illuminated 
manuscript,  the  early  printed  books  being  based 
entirely  on  the  manuscripts  that  preceded  them  ;  and 
the  same  thing  may  be  said  with  regard  to  the  applica- 
tion of  decoration  to  printed  lettering  generally. 

The  practice  of  illumination  in  the  present  day 
should  result  in  something  more  than  weak  imitations 
of  illuminated  borders  which  were  produced  in  the 
mediaeval  period.  Illumination  ought  to  be  a  real 
living  art  to-day. 

There  are  numerous  ways  in  which  it  could  be 
used  as  a  craft  at  the  present  time,  quite  apart  from 
the  many  ways  in  which  it  could  be  applied  com- 
mercially. 

With  regard  to  the  study  of  lettering,  there  is  a 
great  need  for  more  serious  attention  to  be  given  to 
it.  We  are  so  surrounded  by  bad  lettering  that  it  is 
well  that  an  effort  should  be  made  to  get  better  results, 
and,  as  a  means  to  this,  some  study  of  the  beautiful 
forms  of  lettering  used  in  the  past  should  be  of  the 
greatest  service.  For  this  reason  I  have  tried,  by 
giving  some  examples,  to  direct  the  student's  atten- 
tion to  at  least  some  of  the  fine  styles  of  lettering 
that  were  employed  in  centuries  gone  by. 

It  is  a  great  pity  that  the  splendid  book-hands  of 


4  PREFACE 

the  past  should  have  fallen  into  disuse,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  beautiful  decoration  that  accompanied  the 
writing.  It  would,  undoubtedly,  be  a  good  thing  if 
some  further  encouragement  were  given  to  serious  study 
of  the  well-formed  lettering  that  was  produced  during 
the  mediaeval  period. 

I  trust  that  this  small  work  may,  in  some  slight 
measure,  be  the  means  of  fostering  increased  interest 
in  lettering  and  illumination.  I  am  deeply  conscious 
of  its  many  imperfections,  and  I  only  hope  that,  in 
spite  of  its  many  faults,  it  may  be  of  some  use  to  the 
reader  who  is  interested  in  this  art.  If  the  study  of 
it  is  the  means  of  creating  greater  zeal  and  energy  in 
the  production  of  good  work  in  this  direction,  I  shall 
feel  that  my  efforts  have  not  altogether  been  in  vain. 

Sidney  Farnsworth. 
The  Island, 

Little  Waltham, 
Near  Chelmsford. 


INTRODUCTION 

"  In  all  great  arts,  as  in  trees,  it  is  the  height  that 
charms  us  ;  we  care  nothing  for  the  roots  or  trunks ; 
yet  they  could  not  exist  without  the  aid  of  these." 
This  quotation  from  Cicero  may  as  well  be  applied 
to  the  art  of  illumination  as  to  anything  else.  The 
fact,  however,  that  the  tree  cannot  exist  without  the 
aid  of  the  trunk  and  roots,  shows  how  important  these 
are  ;  and  no  one  who  intends  giving  serious  attention 
to  the  tree  in  its  entirety  can  afford  to  neglect  these. 

It  is  only  through  careful  study  of  the  art  of 
illumination  that  it  is  possible  to  understand  fully  the 
construction  that  enters  into  the  growth  of  this  art. 
When  some  knowledge  has  been  gained  of  the  manner 
in  which  this  work  has  been  done  in  the  past,  through 
practical  experience,  it  is  then  that  a  real  appreciation 
is  felt  for  the  choice  work  of  the  mediaeval  period. 

"  Perfect  illumination,"  says  Ruskin,  in  one  of  his 
Lectures  on  Art,  "  is  only  writing  made  lovely ;  .  .  . 
But  to  make  writing  itself  beautiful — to  make  the 
sweep  of  the  pen  lovely — is  the  true  art  of  illumina- 
tion." Certainly  it  is  only  when  the  student  is  able 
to  produce  writing  that  is  attractive  in  itself,  that  it  is 
permissible  to  add  decoration  to  it.  The  decoration 
should  be  the  natural  outgrowth  from  the  writing. 

A  page  of  well-formed  lettering  makes  good  pattern, 


6  INTRODUCTION 

and  is  not  merely  pattern,  as  it  serves  also  the  purpose 
for  which  it  was  intended,  viz.,  to  be  read. 

It  is  when  he  has  gained  the  mastery  of  the  pen, 
in  making  well-formed  letters  with  good  arrangement 
on  the  page,  that  the  student  may  consider  that  he  has 
well  started  on  the  road  to  the  production  of  good 
illumination. 

For  the  construction  of  well-finished  lettering  it 
is  essential  that  a  mastery  of  the  tool  and  materials 
employed  should  be  acquired.  It  is  when  the  pen 
becomes  almost  a  part  of  the  writer,  so  that  he  is 
able  to  concentrate  all  his  energy  on  the  writing, 
giving  scarcely  any  attention  to  the  pen  itself,  that  he 
may  claim  to  be  proficient  in  the  use  of  the  pen. 

If  there  is  one  thing  more  than  another  that  one 
feels  when  examining  some  of  the  best  illuminated 
work  of  the  past,  it  is  that  the  writer  was  a  master  of 
the  pen  as  a  letter-making  tool.  He  did  his  work  well ; 
his  books  were  transcribed  in  a  workmanlike  manner, 
and  the  decoration  which  followed  seems  to  come  quite 
naturally  from  the  writing  itself. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  so  much  attention  has 
been  given  to  the  use  of  the  quill  and  reed  pen  in  the 
formation  of  good  writing. 

Students  are  frequently  at  a  disadvantage  from 
inability  to  handle  the  pen  properly.  To  help,  in  some 
measure,  to  remedy  this,  the  student  is  shown  how  to 
make  sharply-defined  strokes  before  attempting  to 
form  letters.  At  the  same  time  no  particular  manner 
of  holding  the  pen  has  been  insisted  upon. 

In  the  Introduction  to  his  "  Essay  on  the  Sublime 
and  Beautiful,"  Burke  says  :    "I  am  convinced  that 


INTRODUCTION  7 

the  method  of  teaching  which  approaches  most  nearly 
to  the  method  of  investigation  is  incomparably  the  best ; 
since,  not  content  with  serving  up  a  few  barren  and 
lifeless  truths,  it  leads  to  the  stock  on  which  they 
grew  ;  it  tends  to  set  the  reader  himself  in  the  track  of 
invention,  and  to  direct  him  into  those  paths  in  which 
the  author  has  made  his  own  discoveries,  if  he  should 
be  so  happy  as  to  have  made  any  that  are  valuable." 

This  has  been  the  ideal  that  the  present  writer  has 
tried  to  keep  ever  before  him  in  writing  the  instruc- 
tions that  are  given  in  the  succeeding  pages.  His  aim 
has  been  to  direct  the  student  in  the  right  way,  and 
then  to  encourage  him  to  study  the  subject  for  himself. 
Whether  he  has  been  successful  in  this  endeavour  must 
be  left  for  the  reader  to  judge. 

The  study  of  calligraphy,  in  connection  with 
illumination,  ought  to  be  helpful  in  making  the  ordinary 
handwriting  more  legible.  Before  the  age  of  printing, 
the  book-hand  developed  alongside  of  the  ordinary 
cursive  handwriting,  and  possibly  the  fact  that  the 
book-hand  has  been  lost  may  be  advanced  as  a  reason 
why  most  of  the  handwriting  to-day  is  so  degenerate. 
A  careful  study  of  some  of  the  fine  models  of  book- 
hands  of  the  past  cannot  but  be  beneficial.  It  will 
certainly  enable  the  student  to  appreciate  beautiful 
forms  of  lettering,  and  its  influence  should  soon  be 
apparent  in  the  lettering  in  general  use.  This  should 
result  in  better  sign-writing,  better  lettering  in  our 
magazines  and  papers,  in  short,  better  lettering  all 
round. 

Undoubtedly  it  would  be  a  good  thing  if  the  child- 
ren in  our  schools   could  be   taught  to  form  some  of 


8  INTRODUCTION 

the  fine  book-hands  of  the  past  with  the  quill  pen.  It 
is  certainly,  to  a  great  extent,  due  to  the  lack  of  a 
practical  knowledge  of  some  of  the  splendid  forms  of 
lettering  used  in  the  past,  that  the  general  lettering 
in  use  at  the  present  time  is  so  bad.  It  ought  not  to 
be  at  all  impracticable  for  this  suggestion  to  be  carried 
out. 

After  the  student  is  able  to  make  well-formed 
letters  with  the  quill  and  reed  pen,  and  arrange  them 
well,  the  use  of  decoration  and  the  further  development 
of  illumination  should  follow  naturally. 

There  is  undoubtedly  a  place  for  illumination 
to-day,  and  even  in  connection  with  the  illuminated 
manuscript  book,  which  should  certainly  possess  the 
first  place  amongst  the  work  of  the  modern  illuminator. 
There  is  not  the  slightest  suggestion  there  that  the 
illuminated  manuscript  should  usurp  the  place  of  the 
printed  book,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not 
be  in  use  at  the  same  time.  One  of  the  great  charms 
that  a  fine  manuscript  possesses  is  its  uniqueness,  not 
being  one  of  many,  as  in  the  case  of  the  printed  book. 
Then  again,  some  things,  as,  for  example,  Poetry  and 
Romance,  are  rendered  in  a  much  more  sympathetic 
fashion  in  the  illuminated  manuscript  than  in  the 
printed  book. 

There  are  many  ways  in  which  the  art  of  illumina- 
tion might  be  applied  to-day,  as  well  as  in  the  usual 
illuminated  testimonial.  Several  suggestions  are  given 
in  the  following  pages  for  different  ways  in  which  it 
may  be  employed. 

In  the  decoration  of  the  printed  book  the  services 
of  the  artist    who  is  well-trained  in  the  use  of  good 


INTRODUCTION  9 

lettering  and  book-decoration  should  be  of  value  to 
the  printer.  Although  there  is  no  need  for  the  printer 
to  endeavour  to  imitate  the  work  of  the  illuminator, 
there  ought,  certainly,  to  be  room  for  a  well-developed 
style  of  decoration  that  could  be  used  with  a  good  form 
of  type. 

A  few  centuries  ago,  before  printing  was  used  for 
the  production  of  books,  illumination  as  a  part  of 
calligraphy  was  an  important  craft.  Books  were 
not  only  beautifully  written  but  they  were  also  richly 
decorated  with  gold  and  colours.  The  writing  of  long 
manuscripts  was  very  slow  work,  compared  with  the 
increased  speed  of  production  afforded  by  the  printing 
press  ;  but,  notwithstanding  this,  it  appears  to  have 
been  important  that  the  writing  should  be  rendered 
more  beautiful  by  the  enrichment  of  decoration. 
Unfortunately,  although  methods  of  book-production 
are  now  so  speedy,  most  of  the  lettering  is  of  the 
barest  and  crudest  kind.  Book-decoration  seems  to 
be,  in  most  cases,  confined  to  illustration,  and  even 
this  does  not  often  form  an  altogether  inseparable  part 
of  the  book. 

With  regard  to  the  various  developments  on  the 
purely  commercial  side,  the  study  of  pen-  and  brush- 
formed  lettering  cannot  but  be  of  the  greatest  service 
to  the  commercial  artist  who  requires  lettering  for 
posters,  labels,  book-covers,  and  the  many  things  that 
require  lettering. 

In  fact,  lettering  enters  so  largely  into  decorative 
design  that  the  study  of  some  of  the  fine  forms  of 
lettering  is  of  paramount  importance  to  any  artist 
who  desires  that  the  lettering  that  he  uses  should  be  of 


io  INTRODUCTION 

good  construction.  So  many  drawings  have  been 
spoiled  through  the  introduction  of  weak  and  badly 
formed  lettering  that  the  need  for  training  the  student 
to  produce  lettering  that  is  well-finished  and  of  good 
form  should  be  obvious  to  everyone. 

Without  doubt  one  of  the  great  things  in  lettering 
is  to  allow  the  tool  to  have  its  way.  Pen-formed 
lettering  should  be  of  a  form  easily  constructed  with 
the  pen,  and  should  not  pretend  to  be  a  brush-formed 
lettering,  and  vice  versb. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  in  the  first  chapter  so 
much  attention  has  been  given  in  noting  the  influence 
that  the  tools  and  materials  employed  have  had  on 
the  shaping  of  the  letters. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

PREFACE         ....  ....  I 

INTRODUCTION 5 


CHAPTER   I 

THE   INFLUENCE    OF   THE   TOOL 

Writing  the  Foundation  of  Illumination — Early 
Influences — Babylonian  Characters — Egyp- 
tian Hieroglyphics — The  reed  and  quill  Pen 
— The  use  of  Vellum  .         .         .  23 

CHAPTER   II 

THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF  WRITING   IN  THE   PAST 

Maj  uscule  Writing — Square  Capitals — Rustic  Capi- 
tals— Uncials — Mixed  Uncial  and  Minuscule 
Writing — Half-Uncials — Irish  Half- Uncials 
— English  Half-Uncials — Minuscule  Writing 
— Lombardic  Writing — Visigothic  Writing — 
Merovingian  Writing — Carlovingian  Writing 
— Later  Styles       .  ....       32 

CHAPTER   III 

THE   PREPARATION   AND   USE   OF  THE   PEN 

Cutting  the  Pen — Simple  Exercises  .         .      42 


12  CONTENTS 

•    CHAPTER   IV 

THE   FORMATION   OF   LETTERS 


PAGE 


Letters  formed  with  simple  Pen-strokes — Method 
in  working — How  the  various  Letters  are 
formed  48 

k      CHAPTER  V 

FORMING  WORDS   AND   SENTENCES 

Writing  a  short  Quotation — Spacing  Letters — 

Italics — Pen-formed  Figures  54 

v  CHAPTER  VI 

ALPHABETS    FOR   STUDY,    BASED    ON    HISTORICAL 

EXAMPLES 

Uncial  Letters — Half-Uncials — Writing,  from  the 

Tenth  to  the  Fifteenth  Century     ...       60 

v     CHAPTER  VII 

ROMAN      LETTERING 

Building  up  Letters  with  Pen-strokes — Roman 
Letters  made  with  simple  direct  Pen-strokes 
— The  Construction  of  Roman  Capitals     .      70 

CHAPTER  VIII 

SOME  HISTORICAL  EXAMPLES  OF  ROMAN  LETTERING 

The  Alphabet  of  the  Trajan  Column — Various 
Alphabets  from  the  Thirteenth  to  the  Six- 
teenth Century      ......       76 


CONTENTS       y  13 

CHAPTER  IX 

A   BRIEF    SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY    OF    ILLUMINATION 

1.     From  the  Fourth  to  the  Eleventh  Century 

PAGE 

Classical  and  Byzantine  Illumination — Celtic  and 
Anglo-Celtic — Carlovingian — The  Winchester 
School 84 


CHAPTER  X 


V^ 


A  BRIEF   SKETCH  OF   THE    HISTORY   OF  ILLUMINATION 

2.  From  the  Twelfth  Century  to  the  Decline 

Illumination  in  the  Twelfth  Century — Thirteenth 
Century — Fourteenth  Century — Fifteenth 
Century  and  later 93 


CHAPTER  XI  v 

THE   INITIAL  LETTER 

How  the  Decoration  springs  from  the  Initial  letter 
— Examples  from  the  Seventh  to  the  Fif- 
teenth Century  101 

CHAPTER   XII 

SIMPLE  ILLUMINATION   IN   BLACK  AND   RED 

Method  of  setting  out  a  Page — Arranging  the 
Lettering — Initial  letters,  and  how  to  con- 
struct them — Various  arrangements  of 
Lettering 107 

B 


14  CONTENTS 

v  CHAPTER  XIII 

THE    COLOURS    USED    BY   THE    MEDIAEVAL    ILLUMINATOR 

PAGE 

Early  treatises — Theophilus — The   Book  of  the 

Art  of  Cennino  Cennini        .         .         .         .     115 

*  CHAPTER  XIV 

COLOURS  :     THEIR   COMPOSITION    AND    PERMANENCE 

The  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  the  different 
Colours  employed — Yellow  Pigments — Red 
Pigments — Blue  Pigments — Green  Pigments 
— Brown  Pigments — Black  Pigments — White 
Pigments 123 

CHAPTER   XV 

COLOURS  :  THEIR  PREPARATION  AND  USE 

Various  forms  in  which  Colours  are  prepared — 
Mixing  Colours — A  method  of  keeping  body 
colours  in  a  convenient  form — Preparing  a  set 
of  Colours  for  Illuminating  .         .         .         .131 

CHAPTER   XVI      S 

^ 

THE   GILDING   METHODS   OF   THE   MIDDLE    AGES 

Early  gilding  methods — Powder  gold — The  early 

use  of  gold-leaf — Raised  gilding  .         .         .     138 

CHAPTER  XVII 

THE    USE   OF   GOLD 

Shell-gold — The  use  of  gold-leaf — How  to  handle 

gold-leaf 146 


CONTENTS  15 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

ILLUMINATION   WITH   GOLD   AND   COLOURS 


PAGE 


Vellum    for   Illuminating — Hand-made    paper — 

Brushes — Colour-work  .....     152 


CHAPTER  XIX  v 

THE   FURTHER   DEVELOPMENT  OF  ILLUMINATION 

The  development  of  decoration — Present-day  uses 

of  Illumination — Possible  developments        .     161 

CHAPTER  XX 

THE      ILLUMINATED   ADDRESS 

The  Framed  Address — The  Vellum  Scroll — The 
Book-form 171 

CHAPTER  XXI 

THE   VARIOUS   METHODS   OF  REPRODUCTION 

Line  Blocks — Half-tones — The  Three-colour  Pro- 
cess— Lithography 178 

CHAPTER  XXII 

CHRISTMAS   CARDS 

Bronze  gilding — Setting  out   to  design — Sugges- 
tions— Hand-written  Cards — Invitation  Cards    185 


16  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

LETTERING   FOR   COMMERCIAL  PURPOSES 


PAGE 


Various  things  requiring  Lettering — Lettering 
for  Maps,  Plans,  etc. — Lettering  for  Poster- 
work — Arrangement  of  letters — Designing  a 
Magazine  Cover  192 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

HAND-WRITTEN   POSTERS,   ETC. 

A  quick  method  of  writing  a  Poster — The  reed  pen 

and  the  brush — Window  Tickets — Showcards    203 

CHAPTER  XXV 

THE   ILLUMINATED   MS.    BOOK 

The  Arrangement  of  Pages — Planning  out — The 
Colophon — The  Primary  Object  of  the  Book 
— The  Decoration 216 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

A  SIMPLE   METHOD   OF   BINDING  MSS. 

Binding  in  limp  Vellum — Sewing  the  sections — The 
Decoration  of  the  Cover       .        .        .        .225 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE   ILLUMINATION   OF  THE   PRINTED   BOOK 

The  Combination  of  Printing  and  Illumination — 
Books  suitable  for  Illumination — The  Style 
of  Decoration  suited  to  this  .        .        .232 


CONTENTS  17 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 

PRINTED   BOOK   DECORATION 


PAGE 


The   Title-page— The   Initial   Letter— Types   to 

avoid — Tail-pieces,  etc.         .         .         .         .238 

CHAPTER  XXIX 

CONCLUDING   REMARKS 248 

CHAPTER  XXX 

NOTES  ON   BOOKS 256 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Illuminated  Page             -  Frontispiece 

Babylonian  Characters  (Fig.  i)   -  -  25 

Egyptian  Hieroglyphics  (Fig.  2)  -  -  27 

Egyptian  Hieratic  Writing           -  -  facing  28 

Stylus  and  Early  Pens      -  -  29 

Cadmus  gives  the  Greeks  an  Alphabet  facing  32 

The  Development  of  Wiiting  (Fig.  3)  -  -      34 

The  Development  of  Writing  (Fig.  4)  38 

The  Pen  (Fig.  5)  -      43 

Simple  Pen- Strokes  (Fig.  6)  -  -      45 

Pen-formed  Letters  (Fig.  7)  -  -       49 

The  Construction  of  Letters  (Fig.  8)  -      51 

Forming  Words  and  Sentences  (Fig.  9)  -  -      55 

Word-spacing,  etc.  (Fig.  10)          -  -  -      57 

Alphabets  for  Study  (Fig.  11)  -  61 

Alphabets  for  Study  (Fig.  12)  -  -      63 

Alphabets  for  Study  (Fig.  13)  -  64 

Alphabets  for  Study  (Fig.  14)  -  66 

Roman  Lettering  (Fig.  15)  71 

Pen-formed  Roman  Lettering  (Fig.  16)  -  74 

The  Trajan  Column           -  facing  76 

The  Trajan  Alphabet  (Fig.  17)     -  -  -      yy 

The  Trajan  Alphabet  (Fig.  18)      -  -  -       78 

The  Trajan  Alphabet  (Fig.  19)     -  -  -       79 


20  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Roman  Alphabets  (Fig.  20)  -  -      80 

Roman  Alphabet,  pen-formed  (Fig.  21)   -  81 

Roman  Alphabets  (Fig.  22)  -  -      82 

The  Lindisfarne  Gospels  -  -        facing  84 

Flemish  Initials  „     101 

Initial  Letters  (Fig.  23)     -  -  -  -     102 

Initial  Letters  (Fig.  24)    -  -  -  -     105 

A  Simple  Page  in  Black  and  Red  -     facing  107 

Method  of  Setting  out  Page  (Fig.  25)       -  -     108 

Mediaeval  Alphabets  (Fig.  26)       -  -  -     no 

The  Construction  of  Initials  (Fig.  27)      -  -     in 

Illumination  in  Black  and  Red  (Fig.  28)  -  -     113 

The  Preparation  of  Colours  (Fig.  29)      -  -     133 

Gilding  Materials  (Fig.  30)  148 

Illumination  with  Gold  and  Colours  (Fig.  31)     -     157 

Illuminated  Altar  Tablet  -  -        facing  161 

The  Development  of  Illumination  (Fig.  32)        -     162 

Rough  Sketches  of  Illuminated  Pages  (Fig.  33)  -     166 

A  Roll  of  Honour  -  facing  167 

Illuminated  Altar  Tablet  -  -        ,,169 

A  Church  Porch  Text         -  -  ,,      170 

An  Illuminated  Address  -  -        „      171 

Various  Forms  of  Illuminated  Addresses  (Fig.  34)  172 

Designs  for  Christmas  Cards       -  -        facing  185 

A  Christmas  Card  -  -  -  ,,187 

Styles  of  Cards  (Fig.  35)  188 

Styles  of  Cards  (Fig.  36)  -  -  189 

Designs  for  Programme  and  Progressive  Whist 

Card  -  facing  190 

Booklet  Cover     -  -  -  -  ,,      192 

An  Attractive  Advertisement     -  192 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  21 

PAGE 

A  Handbook  Cover  -  194 

Lettering  for  Maps,  etc.  (Fig.  37)  -  -     195 

A  Design  for  a  Certificate  -  -     facing  196 

An  Alphabet  for  Poster  Work  (Fig.  38)   -  -     197 

Two  Designs  for  Labels  -  198 

A  Design  for  a  Letter  Heading    -  -  -     199 

A  Design  for  a  Music  Cover  -  -     facing  200 

A  Design  for  a  Bookplate  -  -  -     201 

An  Attractive  Piece  of  Lettering  -  -     204 

Guide  for  Hand-written  Posters  (Fig.  39)  -     205 

Specimen  Poster  written  with  Pen  (Fig.  40)  -  207 
Specimen  Poster  written  with  Brush  (Fig.  41)  -  209 
Design  for  a  Menu  -  210-21 1 

Window  Tickets  (Fig.  42)  -  213 

A  Showcard  (Fig.  43)  -  -  -    214 

Frontispiece  of  Blake's  "  Songs  of  Innocence  "facing  216 
Arrangement  for  MS.  Book  (Fig.  44)        -  -     218 

Title-page  of  Blake's  "  Songs  of  Innocence  "facing  219 
Examples  of  Colophons  (Fig.  45)  -  -    221 

Two  pages  from  "  Songs  of  Innocence  "  facing  223 
Method  of  Stitching  MS.  Book  (Fig.  46)  -  -     226 

Vellum  Cover  (Fig.  47)     -  -  -  -     228 

Cover  ready  for  Binding  (Fig.  48)  -  -     229 

Completing  the  Cover  (Fig.  49)  -  -  -     230 

The  Illumination  of  the  Printed  Book  (Fig.  50)  -  233 
Styles  of  Title  Pages  (Fig.  51)     -  -  -    239 

Types  of  Initials  to  Avoid  (Fig.  52)        -  -     242 

Decorative  Initials  (Fig.  53)  -  -     243 

Tail-pieces  (Fig.  54)  245 


ILLUMINATION 

AND  ITS    DEVELOPMENT 
IN  THE  PRESENT  DAY 

CHAPTER   I 

THE    INFLUENCE    OF   THE   TOOL 

Calligraphy  and  Illumination  are  inseparably  bound 
up  with  each  other.  The  art  of  Illumination  cannot 
be  severed  from  that  of  Writing.  One  cannot  imagine 
the  decoration  apart  from  the  writing.  Undoubtedly 
this  sprang  from  a  desire  to  beautify  the  writing. 
Man  sought  to  make  his  manuscripts  beautiful,  and 
the  result  was  a  form  of  illumination,  at  first  very 
primitive,  but  gradually  developing  into  the  beautiful 
art  that  we  are  so  familiar  with  in  the  choice  manu- 
scripts of  the  middle  ages. 

When  commencing  the  study  of  the  art  of  illumina- 
tion it  is  extremely  important  that  it  should  be  ap- 
proached from  the  proper  standpoint.  It  is  to  be 
feared  that  this  has  not  always  been  the  case.  The 
lure  of  the  bright  gold  and  colours  has  often  led  both 
teacher  and  taught  astray,  and  the  proper  use  of  the 
pen  in   writing  has  been   almost   entirely  neglected. 

Instead  of  allowing  the  tool  to  have  its  own  way, 
it  has  been  forced  to  form  laborious  shapes  that  are 
not  suited  to  its  construction  at  all.     The  decoration, 


23 


24  ILLUMINATION 

it  is  to  be  feared,  has  been  looked  upon  as  a  sort  of 
spice  to  be  added  as  a  finishing  touch,  instead  of  being 
a  vital  growth  springing  naturally  from  the  writing. 
Until  it  be  viewed  from  this  standpoint,  no  real  pro- 
gress can  be  made.  If  a  building  is  to  be  soundly 
constructed,  the  first  thing  to  see  to  is  that  the  founda- 
tions are  well  laid.  The  same  principle  applies  in  this 
case.  The  decoration,  if  it  is  to  be  living  and  real, 
must  have  a  starting-point  for  growth.  The  student 
should  see  that  this  is  a  sure  foundation  and  not 
a  tottering,  shaky  structure.  Well-formed  writing 
should  be  the  first  consideration. 

Ordinary  hand-writing  is  a  development  of  the 
kind  of  writing  used  by  the  old  calligraphers.  Gener- 
ally speaking,  the  connection  between  the  two  is  not 
recognised.  Probably  if  this  were  so  calligraphy  of 
the  present  day  would  be  much  better  than  it  generally 
is.  The  fact  that  it  is  generally  referred  to  as  "  print- 
ing "  shows  how  the  connection  has  been  lost.  Drawing 
is  thought  to  be  more  akin  to  it  than  hand-writing. 
It  is  no  uncommon  sight  to  see  a  student  carefully 
drawing  the  shapes  of  the  letters  and  then  filling  them 
in  with  a  fine  mapping  pen.  If  the  individuality  of 
the  pen  as  a  letter-making  tool  were  recognised  this 
kind  of  thing  would  not  occur. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  consider  briefly  some  of 
the  early  influences  at  work  in  the  production  of  writing. 

In  Fig.  i  some  examples  of  early  Babylonian 
characters  are  shown.  In  these  early  days  the  common 
writing  material  was  clay.  The  characters  used  in 
writing  were  rough  pictures  of  different  objects  which 
were  drawn  in  outline.     Thus  the  sign  for  "  king  "  was 


THE   INFLUENCE   OF  THE  TOOL 


25 


a  rude  drawing  of  a  man  crowned  ;  this  was  scratched 
on  the  surface  of  the  soft  clay  with  a  pointed  tool. 
One  can  quite  understand  how  these  characters 
could  be  constructed  with  a  series  of  impressions  in  much 
less  time  than  it  would  take  to  draw  them  in  outline. 


BABYLONIAN  CHAKACT6RS. 


;IS^L  -  * 


fcr&-  TTT 


(A) 


(<) 


©HF- 


00  O  ldv/  (D^T 

Skouyirur'  the  Influence  of  tk&  tot 
otv  the  shapes  of  tkc  Characters 


Fig.  1. 

Then  again  it  must  have  been  much  easier  to  [draw 
on  the  soft  clay  in  this  way.  A  square-pointed  stylus 
was  used  for  this  purpose,  and,  with  the  wedge-shaped 
impressions  thus  produced,  the  characters  could  be 
formed  quite  easily.  Not  only  was  the  scribe  able 
to  write  with  greater  speed,  but  the  way  in  which  the 


26  ILLUMINATION 

characters  were  produced  was  more  methodical.  The 
character  for  "  king,"  when  made  with  the  wedge- 
shaped  impressions,  was  constructed  as  shown  in  (b). 
One  can  easily  recognise  the  same  form  placed  horizon- 
tally, instead  of  vertically,  as  was  originally  the  case. 
In  course  of  time  the  characters  became  somewhat 
simplified.  The  next  step  in  the  development  of  the 
character  is  shown  in  (c) .  The  final  form  is  shown  in 
(d),  this  being  very  much  simplified.  In  like  manner 
the  signs  represented  in  (e)  and  (h)  were  used  to  denote 
"  star  "  and  "  sun  "  respectively.  The  development 
of  these  is  seen  in  (/)  and  (g),  also  in  (i)  and  (j)  The 
reason  for  calling  attention  to  these  characters  is  to 
show  how  the  shapes  are  influenced  by  the  tool  and 
the  material  employed.  This  is  a  most  important 
factor  in  the  formation  of  letters. 

Where  soft  clay  was  used  as  a  material,  and  the 
characters  were  formed  by  making  impressions  with  a 
stylus,  one  would  naturally  expect  that  these  signs 
would  take  the  form  of  a  series  of  indentations  rather 
than  flowing  lines  as  from  a  brush  or  pen. 

In  the  case  of  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  shown 
in  Fig.  2,  a  difference  is  at  once  noticed.  These 
characters  were  at  first  small  pictures  carved  on  stone. 
The  hieratic  characters  were  simple  interpretations  of 
these  formed  with  a  reed  pen.  It  is  quite  obvious,  to 
all  who  care  to  observe,  how  easily  these  characters 
could  be  formed,  especially  when  they  are  compared 
with  the  earlier  signs.  In  this  case  the  influence  is 
quite  different  from  that  of  the  Babylonian  characters. 
Instead  of  a  series  of  impressions,  one  notices  long  flow- 
ing strokes  characteristic  of  the  pen.     It  is  interesting 


THE   INFLUENCE   OF  THE   TOOL 


27 


to  note  how  the  essential  quality  of  the  more  elabo- 
rate character  is  obtained    with  simple  pen-strokes. 
Although    the    hieroglyphic    is    often    quite    complex 
there  is  still  a  likeness  retained  in  the  hieratic  form. 
The  reed  pen  used  by  the  Egyptian  scribes  was  the 


6GYPTIAN  HIEROGLYPHICS. 


Sk^ttfk^T  tkc  development"  Into  the 
2"Ueratic  or  vcn~  formed,  0\yxwactcr5. 


Fig.  2. 
forerunner  of  the  modern  pen.  It  was  formed  from 
the  hollow  stalk  of  grasses  that  grew  in  marshy  districts. 
Sometimes  pens  were  made  from  hollow  canes  and 
bamboos.  This  kind  of  pen  is  still  used  in  the  East. 
The  material  used  for  writing  upon  was  known  as 
papyrus.     This  was  made  from  the  pith  of  a  species  of 


28  ILLUMINATION 

reed,  the  Cyperus  Papyrus  of  Linnaeus.  This  was,  in 
early  days,  cultivated  in  the  Delta  of  Egypt.  It 
was  used  for  several  different  purposes,  one  of  the 
most  important  being  for  writing-material.  This 
was  prepared  by  cutting  it  into  strips  and  placing 
these  side  by  side,  with  another  set  placed  across  them 
at  right  angles.  The  two  layers  were  stuck  together 
and  the  whole  pressed  and  dried,  and  the  surface 
smoothed  to  make  a  sheet  of  writing-material. 

It  is  a  most  difficult  matter  to  state  when  the  quill 
pen  was  first  used.  Probably  the  earliest  allusion  to 
it  occurs  in  the  writings  of  St  Isidore,  Archbishop  of 
Seville,  who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventh 
century.     The  following  is  the  quotation  in  question  : 

"  Instrumenta  scribes  calamus  et  penna ;  ex  his 
enim  verba  paginis  infiguntur ;  sed  calamus  arboris 
est,   penna   avis,    cujus   acumen   dividitur   in   duo." 

("  The  tools  of  the  writer  are  a  reed  and  a  quill ; 
for  by  these  words  on  pages  are  impressed  ;  the  reed 
is  of  wood,  the  quill  from  a  bird,  and  its  point  is 
divided  into  two.") 

But  of  course  it  is  extremely  probable  that  quill  pens 
were  in  use  at  a  much  earlier  period  than  this.  It  is 
well  known  that  metal  pens  were  used  by  the  Romans, 
as  a  number  of  these,  made  of  bronze,  are  in  existence 
at  the  present  time. 

For  general  writing  purposes  tablets  coated  with 
wax  were  used  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  A  stylus 
with  one  end  pointed  and  the  other  flattened  was  used 
to  write  with,  the  writing  being  done  with  the  sharp 
point  and  erasures  made  with  the  flattened  end. 

The  skins  of  animals  have  been  used  as  a  writing 


--.,..,.. 


t  mm  ■  % 


IWSfc 


■■V-.y 


»\  2*5  r^r  % 


x 

M 


-i- 


u 


2 


w 


- 


> 


30  ILLUMINATION 

material  since  quite  an  early  period,  and  the  use  of 
vellum  was  probably  an  improvement  upon  this. 
Pliny,  in  his  "  Natural  History,"  tells  the  story,  on 
the  authority  of  Varro,  of  how  Eumenes  II.,  King  of 
Pergamus  from  197  to  159  B.C.,  was  desirous  of  extend- 
ing the  library  in  his  capital,  but  the  Ptolemies,  being 
jealous,  stopped  the  export  of  papyrus,  thinking  by  this 
means  to  prevent  the  royal  library  from  growing. 
Owing  to  the  lack  of  papyrus,  skins  were  employed 
and,  necessity  being  the  mother  of  invention,  the 
manufacture  of  vellum  came  about.  Whether  any 
real  importance  can  be  attached  to  this  story  or  not, 
it  is  certain  that  Pergamus  was  a  great  centre  for  the 
manufacture  of  vellum.  In  fact,  the  word  "  parch- 
ment"  is  derived  from  charta  Pergamena,  i.e.,  "  paper 
from  Pergamum." 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  this  ideal  writing-material, 
with  the  quill  pen,  must  have  had  a  great  influence 
upon  the  formation  of  letters.  Generally  speaking, 
the  writing  on  parchment  or  vellum  is  crisper  and  more 
sharply  defined  than  that  on  the  papyrus. 

There  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  the  influence  of 
the  tool  and  the  writing-material  had  a  great  deal  to 
do  with  forming  the  shapes  of  the  letters.  Good  letter- 
ing was  seldom  or  never  consciously  designed,  but  was 
the  result  of  certain  influences  at  work. 

In  the  development  of  lettering  in  the  past,  the 
pen,  as  a  letter-making  tool,  has  played  a  most  promi- 
nent part.  A  reed  or  quill  pen  cut  with  a  broad  nib, 
so  as  to  give  crisp  thick  and  thin  strokes,  is  an  ideal 
tool  for  the  formation  of  letters,  but  one  thing  is 
necessary :  the  pen  must  be  allowed  to  have  its  own  way. 


THE   INFLUENCE  OF  THE  TOOL         31 

The  letters  should  not  be  designed  first  and  copied 
with  the  pen  afterwards.  If  the  lettering  is  to  be 
pen-formed,  let  it  be  formed  with  the  pen ;  it  should 
come  straight  from  the  pen. 

The  capabilities  of  the  pen  as  a  letter-making  tool 
should  be  carefully  studied.  The  reed  or  quill  pen 
should  be  used,  and  one  of  the  best  ways  to  become 
intimate  with  the  pen  is  to  cut  it  to  shape  for  oneself. 
One  is  thus  able  to  understand  the  possibilities  of  this 
tool  as  a  means  for  the  formation  of  letters,  in  a  much 
more  intimate  manner  than  if  a  ready-made  tool  is 
placed  in  the  hand.  The  first  thing  to  endeavour 
to  grasp  is  how  to  cut  and  use  the  pen.  After  this  has 
been  mastered,  the  next  step  should  be  the  formation 
of  letters.  This  is  followed  by  forming  letters  into 
words.  Then  comes  writing  and  designing  with  masses 
of  writing.  Not  until  the  student  is  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  use  of  lettering  should  he  attempt  to 
add  any  decoration  to  it.  A  fine  piece  of  writing  in 
black,  or  black  and  red,  on  vellum  or  fine  hand-made 
paper  is  a  piece  of  decoration  by  itself,  but  a  bad  piece 
of  lettering  cannot  be  made  beautiful,  however  much 
ornament  be  added  afterwards.  The  first  step  towards 
the  study  of  illumination  proper  comes  then,  and 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  place  of  the  initial 
letter  and  the  part  it  has  played  in  the  past  as  a  starting- 
point  for  the  decoration  in  the  MSS.  of  the  mediaeval 
period.  At  first  a  good  deal  can  be  done  with  the  use  of 
black  and  red  only,  or  black,  red,  and  blue.  Then  come 
simple  decoration  with  gold  and  colours  ;  the  use  of 
raised  burnished  gold  ;  the  application  of  illumination 
for  commercial  purposes;  and  the  illuminated  MS.  book. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  WRITING  IN  THE  PAST 

Before  describing  the  method  of  cutting  and  using 
the  pen,  it  may  possibly  be  instructive  to  survey 
briefly  the  development  of  writing  through  the  cen- 
turies. 

The  alphabet,  as  we  know  it,  has  been  traced  right 
back  to  that  used  by  the  Phoenicians.  In  fact,  until 
a  comparatively  short  time  ago,  it  was  thought  by  some 
that  it  could  be  traced  back  to  the  Egyptian  hiero- 
glyphics, but  in  the  light  of  recent  discoveries  this 
theory  is  no  longer  tenable.  The  origin  of  our  alphabet 
is  therefore  still  a  matter  for  research,  although  there 
seems  to  be  no  doubt  concerning  its  descent  from  the 
Phoenician  alphabet. 

The  Roman  alphabet  seems  to  be  a  direct  descen- 
dant from  this,  and  it  is  from  the  Roman  alphabet 
that  the  lettering  that  is  in  use  to-day  has  been  derived. 

Roman  writing  was  divided  into  two  distinct 
classes  :  the  formal  book-hand,  and  the  cursive  hand 
which  was  the  common  hand-writing  of  the  people. 

MAJUSCULE  WRITING 

The  book-hand  first  took  the  form  of  majuscules, 
which  in  turn  were  divided  into  Square  Capitals, 
Rustic  Capitals,  and   Uncials.     After  this    came  the 

32 


It     W*^ 


3     &H 


u 


r  >, 

j  — 

^  u 

-*  >-> 

r.  O 

*  o 


J 


h    o 


x    — 

£     cu 

s  I 

U    x- 

>-. 


CD 

c 

2 


S 

— 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF  WRITING        33 

modified  forms  of  Uncials  caused  by  the  admixture  of 
minuscules. 

By  way  of  explanation  it  may  be  here  mentioned 
that,  in  both  Greek  and  Latin  palaeography,  capital 
letters  are  termed  "  majuscules,"  while  small  letters 
are  known  as  "  minuscules." 

SQUARE  CAPITALS 

Probably  the  earliest  Latin  majuscule  writing  is 
that  known  as  square  capitals.  These  seem  to  be 
modelled  on  the  same  type  of  letter  that  was  used  for 
the  fine  inscriptions.  Although  the  general  opinion 
is  that  these  are  the  earliest  form,  there  is  very  little 
square  capital  writing  in  existence.  The  earliest 
specimen  known  has  been  attributed  to  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century,  although  it  is  thought  that  this  form 
of  writing  had  been  in  use  some  centuries  before  this. 
It  was  in  use  until  the  fourth  or  fifth  centurv.  There 
is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  writing,  when  these 
letters  were  used,  must  have  been  comparatively  slow 
work. 

RUSTIC  CAPITALS 

Rustic  capitals  seem  to  be  an  attempt  to  write 
the  letters  by  means  of  simple  pen-strokes.  Writing 
with  this  type  of  letter  must  have  been  much  quicker 
than  when  the  square  capitals  were  used.  This  style 
of  writing  has  been  used  in  the  earliest  Latin  MSS. 
now  in  existence,  but,  although  this  is  the  case,  the 
general  opinion  seems  to  be  that  the  square  capitals 
were   used   first.     The   title   "  Rustic "   is   somewhat 


34  ILLUMINATION 

misleading,  as  it  might  lead  one  to  suppose  that  these 
letters  are  rough  in  character,  when  they  are  generally 
written  quite  as  carefully  as  the  square  capitals. 

UNCIALS 

The  next  stage  is  the  use  of  the  majuscules  known 
as  "  Uncials."  These  are  true  pen-formed  letters. 
They  seem  to  be  based  on  the  square  capitals,  but,  in 


Roman  Sq-uccrc    Capitals . 

FLORIBVS'ETDVLCIAD 

Rustic    Capitals. 

AXCJDITrf  MCIf  SSiSt  II  AMfO 

Uncials. 

jpRopreReXbicouoBis 

Half 'Uncials. 

clcuriNadoTsiemficleierre 

Irish,  Half -Uncials  . 

epecucer  pulueRem 

Enaiisk  Half -  Uncials . 

P  ODDER  UOftER  qui  CS 


Fig.  3. 

place  of  so  many  angles,  curves  are  employed,  these 
being  much  more  adapted  to  the  use  of  the  pen.  It 
is  a  round  hand,  and  a  very  beautiful  form  of  writing. 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   WRITING        35 

The  simplicity  of  the  characters  with  their  flowing 
curves  is  such  that  they  may  be  easily  formed  with  a 
sharply-cut  reed  or  quill.     The  letters,   A,  D,  E,  H, 
M,   and  U,   are  the   principal  letters  that  show  the 
characteristics  of  this  form  of  writing.     It  seems  to 
have  been  in  common  use  as  a  book-hand  in  the  fourth 
century.     It  is,  however,  thought  by  some  that  it  is 
quite  possible  that  it  may  have  been  in  use  as  early 
as  the  third  century,  as  in  the  oldest  specimens  that 
are  known  the  lettering  appears  to  be  fully  developed. 
One  of  the  special  distinctions  of  this  kind  of  writing 
is  the  way  some  of  the  vertical  strokes  rise  above,  or 
fall  below,  the  line  of  writing.     From  the  fifth  to  the 
eighth  centuries  it  was  given  the  premier  place  as  a 
literary  hand.     The  early  uncials,   as  also  were  the 
square  capitals  and  rustic  capitals,  were  written  with 
a  pen  cut  with  a  slanted  point. 

MIXED  UNCIAL  AND  MINUSCULE  WRITING 

It  must  be  remembered  that  all  the  time  these 
majuscules,  both  capitals  and  uncials,  represent  only 
one  side  of  the  handwriting  employed,  viz.,  that  used 
for  the  production  of  books.  The  ordinary  hand- 
writing of  the  people,  known  as  "  cursive  "  writing,  was 
in  extensive  use  at  the  same  time.  Very  often  this 
form  of  writing  got  mixed  up  with  the  other,  and  the 
result  was  a  mixed  style.  For  example,  in  some  of  the 
early  majuscule  MSS.,  notes  have  been  found  written 
in  this  style.  This  gradually  came  to  be  used  as  a 
book-hand,  until  soon  very  few  of  the  early  uncial 
forms  were  left. 


36  ILLUMINATION 

HALF-UNCIALS 

To  this  form  of  writing  in  its  full  development  the 
title  of  "  Half-Uncial  "  has  been  riven.  It  was  em- 
ployed as  far  back  as  the  fifth  century  for  writing  MSS. 
It  may  have  been  used  because  it  could  be  written 
more  quickly  than  the  ordinary  uncial ;  anyway,  it 
seems  to  have  been  very  extensively  used  as  a  literary 
hand.  This  style  is  very  important,  as  it  marks  the 
beginning  of  the  change  from  majuscule  to  minuscule 
writing.  These  characters  were  generally  formed  with 
a  straight-cut  pen. 

IRISH   HALF-UNCIALS 

Writing  in  the  British  Isles  was  greatly  different 
from  that  used  on  the  Continent.  On  the  Continent 
the  hand  was  developed  from  the  Roman  cursive 
writing,  while  in  England  and  Ireland  the  Roman 
Half-Uncial  was  the  starting-point  of  development. 

There  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  but  that  the  rise 
of  Christianity  in  the  British  Isles  had  a  great  deal  to 
do  with  the  development  of  the  book-hand.  It  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  the  Christian  missionaries  from 
Rome  brought  with  them  a  number  of  MSS.  which  may 
have  served  as  models  for  the  native  scribes.  These 
were  probably  written  in  Roman  half-uncials,  which 
would  account  for  the  manner  in  which  the  Irish 
handwriting  developed.  Evidently  no  MSS.  written 
in  pure  uncials  came  to  Ireland  ;  anyway,  there  seems 
to  be  no  reason  to  suppose  that  such  was  the  case,  as 
no  MS.  of  this  type  has  been  found  that  may  be  claimed 
to  be  purely  Irish  without  any  shadow  of  doubt. 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   WRITING        37 

Early  Irish  writing  is  in  two  forms,  round  and 
pointed.  The  round  hand  is  distinctly  half-uncial. 
Although  it  is  most  difficult  to  state  the  earliest  date 
of  the  Irish  MSS.,  the  general  opinion  is  that  they  date 
back  at  least  as  far  as  the  seventh  century.  The 
famous  Book  of  Kells  is  a  well-known  example  of 
Irish  half-uncials.  The  pointed  writing  was  developed 
in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries.  This  is  probably 
a  development  of  the  round  hand,  and  in  course  of 
time  became  the  Irish  national  hand. 


ENGLISH  HALF-UNCIALS 

In  England  there  were  two  distinct  schools  of 
writing,  one  of  which  came  from  Ireland  and  the  other 
brought  over  by  the  Roman  missionaries.  Very 
little  is  known  of  the  writing  brought  over  by  the 
foreign  missionaries,  as  only  a  small  amount  is 
known  to  be  in  existence.  There  is  evidence,  how- 
ever, that  some  of  the  Roman  rustic  capitals  were 
made  use  of. 

The  English  half-uncials  were  modelled  on  the 
Irish  half-uncials.  The  writing  in  the  Durham  Book, 
now  in  the  British  Museum,  affords  a  good  example  of 
this  kind  of  writing.  It  is  interesting  to  compare 
this  writing  with  that  of  the  Book  of  Kells  ;  there 
is  a  great  similarity.  Both  are  carefully  written 
with  the  straight-cut  pen.  The  English  half- 
uncials  also  developed  in  the  eighth  and  ninth 
centuries  into  a  pointed  hand.  Capitals  which  were 
used  for  initials,  etc.,  are  simply  variations  of  the 
majuscules. 


79338 


38 


ILLUMINATION 


MINUSCULE   WRITING 

As  mentioned  before,  the  Roman  cursive  was  the 
basis  of  the  writing  on  the  Continent.  Three  great 
national  hands  were  formed,  viz.,  Lombardic,  Visi- 
gothic,  and  Merovingian. 

LOMBARDIC  WRITING 

This  was  the  national  handwriting  of  Italy  ;  it 
was  used  from  the  eighth  to  the  eleventh  centuries. 
The  term  "  Lombardic  "  is  given   as  a  general   term 


"Lombardic . 
Q?)Slc&f  cZ&fbfccnrxof  g 

conof  SHcouor 

Visifotklc- 

(flUdoloft&luf.  au^dV 

"Mcrovinfiati. 

\b)  W8ft  cjiuu&ftam 
(i)  uxo  e]:]:ur)aeriCXiT» 


CarlovinfCaiv . 

A.iz  p  xvaLtclco  - 

totk.  century. 

ddfuAC  tnuobif 

mtk,.  century. 

Jricoick  mco  abfcondi 
Bcnediduf  ef  domine  r 

J3  th-.  centuru. 
matnento .  ft  ten  cftuB  .l^&camrtff 
menanrt  teuf -  tdum  •  frfcm  dt  ueljs 

l+tk.  Century. 

te  la  Inayc  pair  f r  amo 

15th.  century. 

mm  nalrnus  am  pft 
tmurye  aflhjtutmur. 


Fig.  4. 

to  the  writing  of  Italy  in  the  early  middle  ages.     In 
Fig.  4  some  free  renderings  arejgiven  of  this  hand. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  WRITING        39 

The  first  (a)  is  an  example  in  one  of  its  earliest  stages, 
written  cursively  in  the  early  part  of  the  ninth  century. 
The  next,  shown  in  (6)  is  the  book-hand  a  little  later. 
The  third  example  (c)  is  a  later  development  of  the 
eleventh  century,  known  as  '  broken  Lombardic." 
It  may  be  noted  that  in  all  these  the  slanted-cut  pen 
has  been  used. 

VISIGOTHIC   WRITING 

The  title  "  Visigothic  '  has  been  given  to  the 
national  handwriting  of  Spain.  Derived  also  from  the 
Roman  cursive,  it  developed  into  a  book-hand  that 
was  used  in  the  eighth  century.  It  was  in  use  until 
the  twelfth  century.  The  first  example  (d)  is  a  half- 
cursive  book-hand  of  the  seventh  or  eighth  century. 
The  next  (e)  a  book-hand  of  the  early  tenth  century. 
The  last  example  (/)  is  the  last  stage,  being  of  the 
twelfth  century.  All  these  are  written  with  the 
slanted-cut   pen. 

MEROVINGIAN   WRITING 

This  is  the  name  given  to  the  writing  practised  in 
the  Frankish  empire.  This  form  of  writing  leads  on 
to  the  great  reform  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  Start- 
ing, as  was  the  case  in  the  other  two  schools,  from  the 
Roman  cursive,  it  developed  into  a  set  book-hand  which 
is  noticeable  in  several  MSS.  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries.  An  early  specimen  is  shown  in  (g).  Several 
different  types  of  writing  were  used  within  the  limits 
of  the  Frankish  empire,  some  of  which  bear  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  Lombardic  style.     In  fact,  so  similar 


40  ILLUMINATION 

are  they  that  it  is  rather  difficult  to  distinguish  one 
from  the  other.  The  example  (h)  is  one  of  this  type, 
being  of  the  late  seventh  century.  As  uncial  and 
half-uncial  characters  were  still  used  for  a  good  number 
of  MSS.  it  is  but  natural  that  these  should  influence 
the  style  of  writing.  The  specimen  given  in  (i)  is  an 
example  showing  the  influence  of  the  half-uncial,  and 
is  a  step  towards  the  full  development  of  the  Caroline 
minuscule. 

CARLOVINGIAN   WRITING 

The  great  revival  of  learning  during  the  reign  of 
Charlemagne  resulted  in  the  development  of  a  new 
school  of  writing  known  as  Caroline,  or  Carlo vingian. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  the  decree 
calling  for  the  revision  of  the  Church  books  naturally 
became  the  cause  of  fresh  activity  in  the  writing 
schools  connected  with  the  monasteries.  At  Tours 
the  book-hand  was  developed  which  is  known  as  the 
Caroline  Minuscule.  An  example  is  given  of  this  hand. 
This  form  of  writing  spread  rapidly  all  over  the  Frank- 
ish  empire  and  gradually  influenced  the  book-hands 
employed  in  the  neighbouring  countries.  The  use  of 
the  slanted-cut  pen  is  an  important  thing  in  connec- 
tion with  the  formation  of  these  minuscules. 

LATER  STYLES 

The  tenth  century  example  given  is  from  the 
Benedictional  of  ^Ethelwold,  Bishop  of  Winchester  from 
a.d.  963-984.  This  lettering  is  of  the  foreign  type, 
but  it  has  a  strongly  defined  native  character  all  its 


THE  DEVELOPMENT    OF  WRITING      41 

own,  some  of  the  letters  being  distinctly  Saxon  in 
type. 

From  the  twelfth  century  onwards  a  great  number 
of  MSS.  were  produced,  each  country  having  its  own 
particular  style  and  developing  on  certain  definite 
lines.  It  is  impossible  to  give  specimens  of  all  the 
different  kinds  of  Calligraphy.  The  examples  shown 
must  be  taken  as  roughly  indicating  the  general 
style  of  the  writing.  The  use  of  the  slanted-cut 
pen  tended  towards  the  compression  of  the  letters, 
thus  forming  a  strong  contrast  to  the  letters  produced 
in  the  earlier  periods  with  the  straight-cut  pen. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  writing  became  consider- 
ably smaller.  In  the  latter  part  of  this  century  a  very 
large  number  of  Bibles  appear  to  have  been  written, 
and  volumes  were  smaller,  standing  out  in  strong 
contrast  to  the  ponderous  tomes  of  the  preceding 
century.  In  the  fourteenth  century  the  writing  became 
considerably  stiffer  and  more  angular.  This  tendency 
showed  itself  still  more  strongly  in  the  fifteenth 
century. 

In  Italy  this  tendency  did  not  make  itself  felt  quite 
as  early  as  in  the  writings  of  Northern  Europe.  Al- 
though later  on  they  became  more  or  less  affected  in 
this  way,  there  is  a  decided  difference  between  Italian 
writing  and  the  styles  employed  by  the  other  countries. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  the  Italian  scribes  appear 
to  have  gone  back  to  their  early  periods  for  models  for 
book-hands,  and  it  is  this  that  influenced  the  early 
printers  of  Italy  to  use  type  of  this  character,  which 
has  its  modern  representative  in  the  Roman  type  of 
to-day. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  PREPARATION  AND  USE  OF  THE  PEN 

To  obtain  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  use  of  the  pen 
as  a  letter-making  tool  is,  as  stated  before,  the  first 
important  thing  for  the  student  to  acquire.  All  the 
practice  he  can  get  in  cutting  it  to  shape,  and  using  it 
in  the  manner  described  here,  will  be  found  to  be  of 
the  greatest  service  in  helping  him  to  produce  good 
lettering  with  it  later  on. 

For  large  writing,  the  best  tool  is  undoubtedly  the 
reed  pen.  In  fact,  this  is  probably  the  best  pen  for 
the  beginner  to  experiment  with  first.  It  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  obtain  a  good  reed  pen.  The  ordinary  kind 
that  is  sold  by  the  artists'  colourmen  is  rather  too  soft 
and  soon  becomes  sodden  with  the  ink.  Crisp  writing 
is  then  impossible.  A  pen  made  from  a  piece  of  hollow 
cane  or  bamboo  seems  to  answer  best  of  all. 

A  sharp  knife  is  required  for  cutting,  and  a  thin  piece 
of  metal  to  form  a  spring  to  hold  the  ink  is  a  great 
advantage.  It  should  be  quite  easy  to  see  from  Fig.  5 
how  the  pen  should  be  cut.  The  great  thing  to  remem- 
ber is  to  see  that  the  pen  is  cut  with  a  nice  chisel  point, 
as  this  ensures  crisp  and  sharp  writing.  Another 
important  detail  is  the  slit  in  the  nib.  This  should  be 
just  the  right  length  for  easy  writing.     If  it  is  too  long 

it  makes  the  pen  too  soft,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if 

42 


THE  PREPARATION   OF  THE   PEN        43 

too  short  it  is  difficult  to  write  with  it.  The  student 
will  find  that  experiment  alone  will  teach  him  what  is 
right  in  this  matter.  An  hour  or  two  spent  experiment- 
ing for  himself  with  a  reed  or  quill  will  teach  him  far 
more  than  pages  of  instruction.  Beyond  just  giving 
a  few  hints,  there  is  no  need  to  devote  much  space  to 
directions  as  to  how  to  cut  the  pen.  The  few  details 
given  are  just  to  act  as  a  guide  to  the  student. 


TH6    P6N 


T^rorvC  Victy 


Bock.  View 


Mbgfnified 
View  of  end 
of  Nib,,shoiuiny 
cUiscl- shaped 
jintrJ 


Zpx\ng  fvsr 
SidcV.ctu  holdtna  thclnk 


position  of  jsprinor 


Fig.  5. 

In  cutting  the  nib,  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
slit  is  a  clean  cut,  also  that  the  points  are  equally 
proportioned  on  each  side.  The  spring  is  best  made 
from  a  piece  of  thin  brass,  copper,  or  pure  tin.  If, 
ordinary  tinned  iron  is  used  it  is  liable  to  get  rusty 
besides  being  generally  too  thick.  It  will  be  found  that 
a  great  deal  depends  on  the  position  in  which  this  is 
placed,  with  regard  to  the  flow  of  ink  from  the  pen. 


44  ILLUMINATION 

When  using  the  reed  pen  for  large  writing  it  will  be 
found  necessary  to  pare  the  curved  inside  of  the  pen 
quite  flat  at  the  point,  to  ensure  a  firm  stroke,  as  other- 
wise a  hollow  stroke  will  be  the  result. 

For  smaller  writing  the  best  pen  is  the  turkey 
quill.  The  goose  quill  is  not  quite  firm  enough,  but  a 
good  turkey  quill  can  be  cut  either  for  quite  tiny  writing 
or  large  bold  writing.  It  is  best  to  strip  the  feather 
part  right  away,  as  there  is  no  advantage  in  having  it 
on  the  pen.  This  can  easily  be  torn  off  by  pulling  the 
end  of  the  feather  downwards. 

For  practice  any  good  smooth-surfaced  paper  may 
be  used.  Several  of  the  well-known  makers  of  high- 
class  hand-made  drawing  papers  make  a  special  paper 
for  writing  and  illumination. 

A  good  fluid  waterproof  drawing  ink  should  be 
used.  Care  should  be  taken  to  procure  one  that  will 
not  thicken  either  in  the  bottle  or  in  the  pen.  It  is 
a  great  fault  with  some  inks  that,  although  they  do  not 
seem  to  thicken  very  much  in  the  bottle,  they  do  so  in 
the  pen.  When  this  is  the  case,  good  writing  is  almost 
impossible.  One  cannot  produce  good  writing  if  one 
has  to  stop  every  little  while  to  wash  out  one's  pen. 
Besides,  when  the  ink  is  beginning  to  thicken,  clear, 
sharp  writing  becomes  impossible. 

Fig.  6  gives  some  simple  exercises  with  the  pen. 
It  should  be  quite  easy  to  understand  the  formation  of 
the  pen-strokes  from  this  diagram.  They  should  be 
practised  over  and  over  again  until  the  strokes  can 
be  made  very  easily.  It  should  be  noticed  that  the 
pen  is  kept  practically  at  the  same  angle  all  the  time. 
It  must  be  held  as  easily  as  possible.     There  is  no  need 


THE   PREPARATION  OF  THE  PEN        45 

to  acquire  any  special  manner  of  holding  it.  Different 
people  hold  the  pen  in  different  ways  and  it  is  best  for 
the  student  to  find  out  which  way  is  easiest  for  him 
to  hold  it  to  produce  good  writing.  If  the  pen  is  held 
in  a  manner  which  may  be  correct  according  to  a  copy- 
book but  which  feels  awkward  and  cramped  for  the 
writer,  the  writing  produced  in  this  way  is  bound  to 


mimuJSLTPfr) 
sssssuurm 

//////// ffffff  MM 


Fig.  6. 

show  evidences  of  this.  If,  however,  the  pen  is  held 
freely,  and  easily,  it  becomes  almost  a  part  of  the  writer 
himself,  and  there  is  a  feeling  of  freedom  about  the 
writing  that  is  entirely  absent  from  that  produced  by 
the  other  method. 

The  strokes  in  the  diagram  were  made  with  a  turkey 
quill  pen  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  described  here. 
One  of  the  most  important  things  is  to  endeavour  to 
keep  the  pen  practically  at  the  same  angle  all  the  time. 

D 


46  ILLUMINATION 

If  the  pen  is  allowed  to  twist  about  in  the  hand,  the 
distinction  between  the  thick  and  thin  strokes  will 
not  be  sufficiently  marked.  It  should  be  quite  easy 
for  the  student  to  acquire  this  mastery  of  the  pen 
without  holding  it  in  a  vice-like  grip. 

For  clear,  sharp  writing  it  is  practically  essential 
that  there  should  be  no  ink  on  the  back  of  the  nib. 
A  small  piece  of  linen,  free  from  fluff,  should  be  kept 
for  a  pen-wiper,  and  the  back  of  the  pen  should  be 
wiped  before  commencing  to  write.  The  ink  should 
be  kept  free  from  pieces  of  fluff  or  small  hairs,  as  if 
these  get  into  the  pen  it  is  impossible  to  produce  good 
writing. 

The  exercise  should  be  practised  first  with  two  ruled 
lines,  then  with  one  only.  It  is  good  training  if,  after 
this,  the  student  will  try  his  skill  in  writing  without 
any  lines  at  all.  He  should  not  sketch  it  in  lightly 
first  in  pencil,  but  should  start  straight  away  with  the 
pen. 

The  width  of  the  nib  should  be  approximately 
the  same  as  the  thickness  of  the  thick  strokes  of  the 
writing. 

When  the  nib  becomes  blunt  or  uneven  it  should  be 
carefully  re-cut.  When  re-cutting  the  pen  it  is 
advisable  not  to  cut  it  in  too  drastic  a  fashion.  Cut 
it  gradually,  taking  very  little  off  at  first  and  using 
only  a  very  sharp  knife.  One  of  the  best  knives  for 
this  purpose  is  a  surgeon's  scalpel,  as,  being  made  of 
hard  surgical  steel,  it  does  not  get  blunt  so  quickly  as 
the  ordinary  pen-knife. 

In  the  next  chapter  it  is  intended  to  beginto  practise 
the  formation  of  letters.     Before  studying  it  the  student 


THE   PREPARATION   OF  THE   PEN        47 

should  practise  cutting  the  pen  and  forming  the  strokes 
in  Fig.  6.  He  should  endeavour  to  make  a  sharp  dis- 
tinction between  the  thick  and  thin  strokes,  and  also 
strive  after  perfect  regularity.  The  more  he  practises 
this  exercise  the  better  will  he  be  able  to  form  the 
letters  in  the  succeeding  ones. 

The  student  is  advised  thoroughly  to  master  one 
stage  before  proceeding  with  the  next.  One  that  has 
been  mastered  is  of  more  value  than  several  hurried 
over  in  a  careless  fashion. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE   FORMATION   OF   LETTERS 

Having  become  somewhat  acquainted  with  the  use  of 
the  pen,  the  next  step  to  be  taken  is  the  formation  of 
letters,  on  the  same  principle  as  the  strokes  were  made 
in  the  last  chapter. 

Fig.  7  shows  an  alphabet  of  capital  letters  and  also 
one  of  small  letters.  Each  letter  is  formed  with  simple 
pen  strokes,  and  the  student  should  experience  no 
difficulty  in  forming  these  after  practising  the  previous 
exercise. 

Perhaps  it  would  not  be  amiss  to  give  a  few  sugges- 
tions as  to  working.  In  the  first  place  he  should  set 
about  his  task  in  a  workmanlike  manner.  It  is 
practically  useless  practising  on  a  few  odd  scraps  of 
paper,  in  a  slipshod  way,  without  making  any  special 
preparations.  This  method  of  working  is  responsible 
for  a  good  deal  of  slovenly  work  and  cannot  be  too 
severely  censured.  The  old  proverb,  '  If  a  thing  is 
worth  doing  it  is  worth  doing  well,"  is  perfectly  true 
in  this  case. 

The  student  should  obtain  a  drawing-board  and 
fasten  his  paper  down  carefully  before  commencing  to 
work.  It  will  be  found  that  a  pad  made  of  several 
sheets  of  blotting-paper  placed  under  the  writing-paper 

will  make  the  writing  easier.     This  makes  a  much  more 

48 


THE  FORMATION  OF  LETTERS  49 

sympathetic  surface  to  write  upon  than  the  hard 
drawing-board.  Then  the  slope  should  be  considered. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  work  with  the  board  flat  on  the 
table.     It  should  be  raised  to  form  a  convenient  slope. 


pen-FORcneo  l€TT6rs. 


ABCD6FGF)IJK 
LCDDOPQJISTdU 

voixyz  &l 

ccbcdcf^rhi  j  klmnopqr 

StUVLUKt|Z.,l  ?():— 


♦  ♦  ♦ 

•  ♦  • 


Fig.  7. 

In  the  old  illustrations  that  we  have  representing  the 
mediaeval  illuminator  at  work,  he  is  always  depicted 
as  writing  at  a  sloping  desk.  By  far  the  most  suitable 
for  writing  is  a  firm  water-colour  easel  which  can  be 
inclined  to  any  angle.  If,  however,  this  is  not  to 
hand,  a  drawing  can  be  raised  on  a  table  to  the  required 


50  ILLUMINATION 

angle  by  resting  one  end  of  the  board  on  a  small  box. 

Another  point  is  the  lighting.  It  is  best  to  arrange 
this  so  that  the  light  comes  over  the  left  shoulder, 
otherwise  the  shadow  of  the  hand  falls  on  the  work. 

Rule  lightly,  with  a  black-lead  pencil,  some  lines 
to  work  upon.  First  rule  two  lines  for  each  row  of 
letters.  For  the  capitals  these  should  be  about  f  in. 
apart,  and  for  the  lower-case  letters  $  in.  should  be 
sufficient. 

The  pen  should  be  cut  so  as  to  give  a  fairly  bold 
stroke,  to  prevent  forming  a  thin,  weak-looking  letter. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  to  ensure  that  the  writing 
be  crisp  and  sharp.  See  that  the  back  of  the  nib  is 
free  from  ink,  and  be  careful  to  keep  the  pen  at  practic- 
ally the  same  angle.  The  habit  of  turning  the  pen 
about  in  the  hand  while  writing  is  responsible  for  a  lot 
of  clumsy  work.  The  beginner  generally  fails  to  turn 
the  ends  of  his  strokes  smartly,  thus  failing  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  thick  and  thin  strokes.  This  is 
caused  by  not  keeping  the  pen  at  the  same  angle. 
The  least  possible  pressure  should  be  put  on  the  nib. 
Let  the  pen  have  its  own  way  ;  do  not  force  it  at  all. 
Some  prefer  to  dip  the  pen  into  the  ink,  wiping  the 
back  of  the  nib  on  a  small  linen  pen-wiper.  Others  use 
a  small  brush  or  quill  for  dropping  the  ink  into  the 
pen.  Some  dealers  put  their  ink  into  bottles  provided 
with  quill  stoppers  for  this  purpose.  Whichever  way 
be  used,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  fill  the  pen  too 
full,  as  if  this  is  done  there  is  every  probability  that  a 
blot  may  be  caused  by  ink  dropping  from  it. 

Fig.  8  shows  exactly  how  the  various  strokes  are 
formed.     The  different  strokes  that  go  to  make  up  the 


THE  FORMATION   OF  LETTERS  51 

capital  A  are  carefully  shown  in  the  proper  order  and 
exactly  how  they  can  be  made.  Most  of  the  letters  in 
the  alphabet  are  also  shown  with  the  pen-strokes 
necessary  for  their  production.     They  are  numbered  so 


A*YH^ 

ipRBcceirpcc- 

1234-  12  312.3  2  3 

GimF)F)ii_cacn 

4123  4  5         12  12.  3 


CD1PPPR 

4123+  5  I  2  34 

ccalbltrfco  's-feslttu 

123         12123+12         J234       1212 

wuiuvx:~7Z  '??  U 

12         2         3  12  123  123         12 


Fig.  8. 

that  the  student  should  have  no  difficulty  in  understand- 
ing exactly  how  to  form  them,  the  first  stroke  being 
numbered  I,  the  second  2,  and  so  on.  It  will  be  found 
that  the  letters  that  are  not  shown  in  this  manner  are 
made  up  of  strokes  that  are  shown  plainly  in  some  other 
letter. 


52  ILLUMINATION 

After  practising  the  formation  of  these  letters  be- 
tween two  lines,  the  student  should  use  one  line  only- 
In  fact,  after  he  begins  to  get  familiar  with  this  method 
of  forming  letters  he  should  discard  altogether  the  use 
of  the  second  line,  as  he  should  be  able  to  write  just  as 
easily  on  one  line  only.  Some  students  seem  to  be 
afraid  that  they  will  not  be  able  to  keep  the  writing 
the  same  size  unless  they  use  two  lines.  It  is  strange 
that  in  ordinary  hand-writing  they  would  never  think 
it  necessary  to  rule  two  lines  to  keep  their  writing 
the  same  size.  The  use  of  two  lines  is  necessary  to  the 
beginner  until  he  has  become  familiar  with  the  pen,  but 
there  is  no  necessity  to  keep  using  these,  for  they  only 
hamper  him  and  give  him  less  freedom  in  working. 

One  of  the  difficulties  that  beginners  generally 
experience,  in  attempting  to  form  letters  with  the 
pen  in  this  way,  is  that  they  are  unable  to  get  good 
firm  curves  and  strong  upright  strokes.  The  cause  of 
this  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  simply  lack  of  practice. 
If  the  student  has  any  trouble  in  this  way  he  should 
practise  the  earlier  exercise  again  and  again.  Weak- 
looking  curves  and  tottering  strokes  will  soon  become 
few  and  far  between  as  he  gains  confidence  in  himself. 
If  he  gives  his  whole  attention  to  forming  the  strokes, 
the  facility  to  produce  well-formed  letters  will  soon  be 
acquired. 

Another  cause  of  bad  writing  is  often  due  to  the 
pen.  If  this  is  not  cut  so  that  it  will  give  crisp  strokes 
good  lettering  is  impossible.  The  student  should  not 
waste  time  trying  to  write  with  a  badly-cut  pen  ;  it 
is  much  better  to  re-cut  it  straight  away. 

After  practising  forming  the  letters  this  size,  he 


THE   FORMATION   OF  LETTERS  53 

should  reduce  them.  The  pen  should  be  cut  with  a 
smaller  point  to  suit  the  size  of  the  letters,  and  lines 
should  be  ruled  closer  together.  He  should  endeavour 
to  get  the  same  crispness  and  sharp  distinction  be- 
tween the  thick  and  thin  strokes  as  in  the  larger  writing. 
He  should  not  rest  satisfied  until  he  is  able  to  produce 
clear  sharp  writing  on  single  lines.  He  should  strive 
to  keep  the  strokes  of  the  letters  quite  upright,  not 
leaning  to  the  right  or  to  the  left.  If  he  has  practised 
the  earlier  exercise  thoroughly  he  should  experience 
no  difficulty  in  this  matter. 

The  next  chapter  will  deal  with  massing  letters 
together  to  form  words  and  sentences.  It  is,  however, 
as  well  to  emphasise  the  fact  that  the  formation  of 
the  individual  letters  should  be  mastered  thoroughly 
first. 


CHAPTER   V 

FORMING    WORDS    AND    SENTENCES 

One  of  the  best  ways  to  get  familiar  with  spacing  and 
forming  letters  into  words  is  to  write  out  a  short  quota- 
tion. 

In  Fig.  9  one  is  given  for  the  student  to  transcribe. 
A  sheet  of  smooth-surfaced  paper  should  be  fastened 
to  a  board  with  drawing  pins,  placing  the  pad  of 
blotting-paper  underneath.  The  page  should  then  be 
ruled  out  with  the  lines  T3^inch  apart,  with  the  exception 
of  the  first  lines,  which  are  f  inch  apart.  Rule  the 
lines  as  lightly  as  possible,  with  an  HB.  pencil,  so  that 
they  are  just  visible,  and  can  be  removed  by  the 
gentlest  possible  touch  of  the  rubber. 

It  should  be  noticed  that  the  width  of  the  paragraph 
is  determined  by  the  first  word,  "  Imagination."  The 
way  that  the  individual  letters  are  carefully  packed 
together,  side  by  side,  is  an  important  factor.  It  is 
hardly  worth  while  cutting  a  special  wide  pen  for 
writing  the  initial  I.  This  can  be  easily  formed  by 
making  two  strokes  closely  together.  This  practice 
should  not  be  adhered  to  as  a  general  rule  for  this  type 
of  letter,  as  some  letters  present  a  patched  appearance 
when  constructed  in  this  manner.  Letters  should 
be  composed  either  of  simple  pen-strokes  or  else  built 
up.     Never  attempt  to  worry  a  letter  into  existence. 

54 


FORMING    WORDS  AND   SENTENCES      55 

Later  on  a  method  of  building  up  letters  will  be  shown. 
They  are,  however,  a  different  type  from  those  shown 
here. 

This  exercise  should  first  be  written  between  two 
ruled  lines  to  each  row  of  lettering.     Then  write  it  out 


TCDAGIDA^IOn 

X  is  useless  uMthout  ! 
knowledge;  nature  gives ! 
in  vain  tne  potuer  of  ! 
combination;  unless  5tud- 
v|  and  observation  supplu! 
materials  to  be  combined ! 

•»     *i'    Stfmuel  JoWoa.  *J*     — 


comH     vamAi 
convi  1     vain! 


■  c 


Fig.  9. 

using  one  line  only.  Then  reduce  the  size,  cutting  a 
pen  with  a  smaller  point,  but  keeping  to  the  same  pro- 
portion in  spacing.  In  copying  this  do  not  draw  the 
lettering  first  in  pencil,  but  go  straight  ahead  with  the 
pen.  Also  do  not  attempt  to  copy  it  in  a  rigid  manner, 
endeavouring  to  get  exactly  the  same  number  of  words 
on  each  line  as  in  the  copy.     Pack  each  letter  closely 


56  ILLUMINATION 

to  its  fellow,  and  do  not  attempt  to  spread  out  any  word 
to  make  it  fit  better.  The  distance  between  each  word 
should  be  about  the  width  of  a  small  letter.  Do  not 
try  to  squeeze  a  word  or  syllable  in  at  the  end  of  a  line. 
It  is  better  to  let  it  project  slightly  over  the  line;  see 
(a)  Fig.  9.  If,  when  the  end  of  the  line  is  reached, 
there  is  a  space  left  not  quite  large  enough  for  the  next 
word,  do  not  attempt  to  spread  out  the  last  word,  but 
either  add  a  simple  pen  ornament  as  in  (b)  or  the  line 
may  be  emphasised  by  pen-strokes  or  dots,  as  in  the 
copy.  Still  another  method  is  shown  in  (c),  where 
flourishes  from  the  final  letter  fill  the  space.  These, 
however,  should  be  used  sparingly,  as  they  tend  to 
make  the  matter  less  readable. 

After  the  student  has  had  a  good  amount  of  prac- 
tice in  writing  in  this  manner  he  will  begin  to  feel 
his  way  and  be  able  to  mass  and  arrange  the  letters 
and  words  properly.  It  is  only  when  he  becomes 
master  over  the  pen,  so  that  he  can  write  quickly  and 
easily,  that  he  is  able  to  mass  the  letters  into  words 
with  facility. 

After  having  written  this  quotation,  a  fresh  one 
may  be  selected  and  written  out  in  a  similar  manner. 
If  this  practice  is  persisted  in,  the  student  will  gain 
valuable  experience  in  the  spacing  and  arrangement  of 
words. 

In  Fig.  10  several  interesting  points  are  noticed. 
In  the  first  place  the  necessity  for  packing  the  letters 
should  be  noted  in  (a).  If  the  two  renderings  of  the 
same  word  be  carefully  examined,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  first  one  has  a  somewhat  broken  appearance.  This 
is  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  each  letter  is  exactly 


FORMING   WORDS  AND   SENTENCES      57 

the  same  distance  from  the  next  to  it.  In  the  second 
example  there  is  much  more  unity,  yet  the  letters 
are  not  really  so  equally  spaced.  The  way  to  get  over 
this  difficulty  is  to  place  each  letter  as  closely  as  pos- 
sible to    its    fellow.     The    first    example    looks    like 


pen' formed 

Figure* 

Le^seRinG  1 56% 

( Italic  FujUrcs! 

distinct    distinct:       1234-56 


t 


writing      writing        \78QO'/z 

,  (e  c   pen  rsaps  r>eAps 

\°  °         IVICE  VNIVST 

ItdicsABCDEFGHIJKlM 
JVOPQRSTU  VWXYZ& 

abcde^hiikjtnnoparstuvwxyz  ag 


Fig.  10. 

L  ETTER ING  because  due  consideration  has  not 
been  given  to  the  fact  that  however  closely  L  and  E, 
and  R  and  I,  are  placed  together,  there  will  always  be  a 
fair  amount  of  space,  so  that  these  should  be  packed, 
if  possible,  closer  together  than  the  rest.  As  the  E 
is  a  curved  letter,  the  L  can  easily  be  formed  so  that 


58  ILLUMINATION 

the  lower  part  comes  underneath.  Also  the  tail  of 
the  R  can  project  under  the  I.  This  device  should 
not  be  carried  to  excess  as  shown  in  (b).  One  often 
sees  architectural  drawings  disfigured  by  a  lot  of  this 
kind  of  thing.  The  student  is  advised  carefully  to 
guard  against  this,  or  his  writing  will  become  freakish. 

In  (c)  two  examples  are  given  which  show  the 
advantage  of  massed  writing.  In  the  first  example 
the  letters  are  placed  together  in  a  loose  manner,  and 
the  two  lines  are  too  far  apart.  The  second  is  much 
easier  to  read  because  the  letters  are  packed  closer 
together,  and  also  the  lines  of  lettering  are  nearer. 
For  general  purposes  massed  writing  is  undoubtedly 
best,  but  for  some  things,  as,  for  example,  in  writing 
poetry,  the  lines  may  be  wider  apart.  The  letters, 
however,  should  be  packed  together,  and  it  is  not  a 
bad  plan  to  make  the  stems  and  tails  of  the  letters  just 
a  trifle  longer  than  usual. 

A  curious  optical  illusion  is  shown  in  (d),  in  connec- 
tion with  the  letter  S.  The  first  one  is  constructed 
so  that  each  half  is  approximately  the  same  size,  but 
it  appears  to  be  larger  in  the  top  half.  It  presents  the 
same  illusion  if  the  page  is  held  upside  down.  The 
second  one,  which  is  drawn  with  the  top  half  slightly 
smaller,  appears  right.  This  applies  to  several  other 
letters  in  the  alphabet,  but  in  the  letter  S  it  is  most 
noticeable.  The  letter  P  is  a  letter  that  requires 
some  attention.  If  a  word  begins  with  this  letter,  the 
form  with  the  stem  projecting  below  the  line  may  be 
used  ;  but  when  this  occurs  in  the  middle  of  a  word,  it 
tends  to  make  it  less  readable.  The  example  given, 
at  first  glance,  looks  like  HEADS. 


FORMING   WORDS  AND   SENTENCES      59 

A  modern  fad  of  using  V  instead  of  U,  and  I  in 
place  of  J,  should  be  discouraged.  In  Latin,  possibly, 
there  is  something  to  be  said  for  it,  but  in  modern 
English  it  looks  foolish  and  affected,  besides  being 
almost  unreadable  at  times. 

The  student  will  find  the  alphabet  of  italics  useful 
for  rapid  lettering  of  plans,  maps,  etc.  He  should 
endeavour  to  preserve  the  same  slope,  not  getting  some 
letters  falling  over  and  others  nearly  upright.  There 
is  no  need  to  give  detailed  instructions  as  to  how  to 
form  the  individual  letters,  as,  after  having  practised 
the  formation  of  letters  in  the  preceding  chapter,  he 
should  experience  no  difficulty  in  feeling  his  way  with 
regard  to  the  forming  of  the  individual  strokes  that  go 
to  make  up  each  letter.  The  same  thing  applies  to  the 
pen-formed  figures  that  are  given  here.  These  are  all 
composed  of  simple  pen-strokes,  and  the  student  should 
be  able  to  form  these  quite  easily  and  quickly. 

Constant  practice  with  the  reed  or  quill  pen  will 
do  more  than  anything  to  make  him  an  efficient  writer. 


CHAPTER   VI 

ALPHABETS  FOR  STUDY,  BASED  ON  HISTORICAL  EXAMPLES 

After  the  student  has,  to  some  extent,  mastered  the 
pen,  and  is  able  to  write  fairly  easily,  it  would  be  a  good 
plan  for  him  to  study  some  of  the  best  historical 
examples,  forming  the  letters  in  the  same  simple 
manner. 

The  examples  given  here  are  free  renderings  of  the 
various  alphabets  used  in  the  different  periods.  In 
the  case  of  any  of  the  letters  being  missing  to  form  the 
complete  alphabet,  these  have  been  constructed  in  a 
similar  style.  The  reason  for  doing  this  is  so  that  the 
student  should  experience  no  difficulty  in  writing  when 
using  any  one  of  these  alphabets,  as  would  possibly 
be  the  case  if  an  incomplete  alphabet  were  given.  These 
alphabets  are  merely  given  for  convenience,  the  object 
not  being  in  any  way  to  keep  the  student  from  studying 
the  original  manuscripts  for  himself.  It  was  thought, 
however,  that  it  might  possibly  be  helpful  if  the 
various  letters  were  given  in  the  form  of  complete 
alphabets,  as,  after  studying  the  various  forms  of 
lettering  in  this  manner,  the  student  would  be  en- 
couraged to  study  the  actual  MSS.  for  himself. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  forms  of  simple  pen- 
formed  lettering  is  given  in  Fig.  n.  The  uncial  char- 
acters shown  here  (a)  afford  one  of  the  best  examples 

60 


ALPHABETS  FOR  STUDY  61 

for  practice  in  writing  with  the  reed  or  quill.  These 
letters  are  all  formed  with  simple  strokes  made  with 
the  slanted-cut  pen.  For  the  purpose  of  general  writing 
it  may  be  as  well  to  change  the  form  of  one  or  two  of 
the  letters,  such  as  the  A,  for   example,  and  possibly 


KLcPNOpq 

STUvoj>cyz 


op  q  R.SC  u  v  upcyz 


Fig.  ii. 

the  D.     Forming  these  characters  with  a  well-cut  pen  is 

splendid  practice  for  the  student.     He  should  endeavour 

to  form  the  letters  with  simple  direct  strokes,  with  no 

touching  up  afterwards.     After  having  practised  the 

previous  exercises  well,  he  should  be  able  to  form  these 

letters  quite  easily.     He  should,  as  opportunity  occurs, 

E 


62  ILLUMINATION 

examine  carefully  some  of  the  fine  uncial  manuscripts, 
or  at  any  rate  some  good  reproductions  of  them. 

The  alphabet  shown  next  (b)  is  founded  on  the 
Irish  half-uncials.  The  one  striking  difference  be- 
tween this  and  the  previous  alphabet  is  that  this  is 
written  with  a  straight-cut  pen  instead  of  a  slanted-cut 
pen.  This  is  plainly  noticeable  in  the  round  letters 
such  as  a,  c,  e,  o,  etc.,  the  thickness  coming  in  quite  a 
different  place.  It  will  be  found  that  writing  in  this 
manner  with  the  straight-cut  pen  is  much  slower  work 
than  writing  in  the  other  way.  It  is,  however,  very 
good  practice  for  the  student.  The  same  remarks 
that  were  made  about  the  uncial  letters  apply  also 
here  ;  it  would  be  as  well  to  modernise  some  of  the 
letters,  such  as  the  "  g  "  and  the  "  n,"  when  writing 
with  this  alphabet. 

In  Fig.  12  some  very  beautiful  alphabets  are  shown 
which  are  excellent  in  every  way  as  examples  for 
study.  These  are  all  formed  with  quite  simple 
strokes  made  with  the  slanted-cut  pen.  The  one 
shown  in  (c)  is  a  free  rendering  of  the  letters  used  in 
the  famous  "  Benedictional  of  ^thelwold."  As  the 
"  s  "  and  the  "  t  "  given  here  are  liable  to  be  somewhat 
unreadable,  additional  forms  of  these  letters  are 
suggested. 

The  example  given  in  (d)  is  taken  from  a  tenth- 
century  Psalter,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  This 
MS.  is  a  very  beautiful  example  of  the  English  writing 
of  this  period.  The  writing  of  this  century  should  be 
very  carefully  studied.  The  student  should  not  be 
content  with  merely  working  from  the  letters  given 
here,  but  should  study  some  of  the  MSS.  of  this  period 


ALPHABETS   FOR   STUDY  63 

for  himself,  noting  carefully  the  spacing  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  lettering. 

The  next  alphabet  (e)  is  taken  from  an  Italian 
twelfth-century  MS.  This  is  slightly  stiff er  in  character 
than  the  preceding  one,  and  the  writing  tends  to  become 


abcdcfqhijklmnopq 
rfcuvvuxyz  st 

abcdeftrh  i  \  klm  nopq 
rffcuvuixtjz  $  t 

e 

abcdefgbij  klmnopq 
rftu  v  xujcyz   s 


Fig.  12. 

more  compressed.  However,  the  lettering  still  re- 
tains its  round  character.  It  is  easy  to  mass  the  letters 
together  when  using  this  alphabet. 

The  letters  in  Fig.  13  are  still  more  compressed  in 
character.  The  alphabet  shown  in  (/)  is  taken  from  a 
late  twelfth-century  MS.  of  the  French  School.     It  is 


64  ILLUMINATION 

a  very  good  form  of  lettering  and  will  well  repay  care- 
ful study. 

The  next  one  (g)  is  a  typical  example  of  the  style 
of  lettering  largely  employed  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
Although  the  letters  are  shown  here  as  large  as  in  the 


abcdefghi  j  k  I  m  nopqr 

ftuvoixtjz  s 

g 

abcdcfgbi  j  klmnopcf  rs 

tuviuxyz 

abcbefgbi  j  klm  ttapqrst 
uvtuxyz 


Fig.  13. 

preceding  example,  the  lettering  generally  was  much 
smaller.  If  the  student  examines  carefully  any  of  the 
thirteenth  century  MSS.  he  will  notice  this  to  be  the 
case.  He  should  practise  using  this  alphabet  in  the 
same  way,  cutting  his  pen  so  that  he  is  able  to  form  the 
small  letters  quite  easily.     He  will  probably  experience 


ALPHABETS  FOR  STUDY  65 

difficulty  in  producing  writing  as  small  as  the  mediaeval 
scribe  was  able  to  do,  as  this  comes  only  from  a  great 
amount  of  practice,  but  he  should  be  able  to  write 
quite  easily  with  the  lines  of  lettering  not  more  than 
T3s  in.  apart. 

The  alphabet  that  follows  this  (h)  is  from  a  four- 
teenth century  MS.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
letters  here  are  much  more  angular,  and  they  conform 
more  to  what  is  popularly  known  as  "  Old  English." 
This  form  of  writing  can  be  quite  easily  formed  with 
the  slanted-cut  pen. 

There  is  no  need  to  employ  a  fine  pen  for  putting 
in  the  thin  strokes,  as  is  so  often  the  case,  as  the  com- 
plete letter  may  be  formed  with  the  same  pen  if  it  is 
cut  with  a  nice  chisel  point.  It  is  most  important  that 
the  student  should  form  the  whole  of  the  letter  with  the 
same  pen,  without  any  touching  up  afterwards.  The 
practice  of  forming  letters  roughly  and  shaping  them 
up  afterwards  with  a  fine  pen  tends  to  cultivate  most 
unworkmanlike  habits  and  cannot  be  too  severely 
censored.  Also  letters  formed  in  this  manner  are 
always  lacking  in  character  and  vitality.  If  the 
student  has  become  familiar  with  cutting  and  handling 
the  pen  he  ought  to  be  able  to  form  any  of  the  letters 
given  here  without  the  slightest  difficulty. 

The  alphabets  of  capital  letters  given  in  Fig.  14 
will  be  useful  as  initials,  etc.,  in  connection  with  the 
small  letters.  It  is  quite  obvious  that  these  letters 
are  not  formed  with  simple  pen-strokes  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  small  letters  are.  These  are  built  up 
with  a  series  of  strokes,  the  body  of  the  letter  being 


66  ILLUMINATION 

then  filled  in  with  either  pen  or  brush.  This  method 
of  building  the  letters  up  with  pen-strokes  will  be 
described  in  detail  in  a  later  chapter. 

The  first  alphabet  given  here  (i),  is  based  on  the 


flB£HEFFT(G)fi]KLfflCD 

H(N)DDF(P)gRSvTTUY 

UJWXXYZ 

71BCDEFGHIKLM1NJO 
PQRSTVWXyZ 

TIBCDeFGfrlKLCDN 
OPQRSTVWXYZ 


Fig.  14. 

capital  letters  used  in  the  famous  Book  of  Kells. 
These  will  serve  well  as  initials  when  using  the  Irish 
half-uncial  characters  for  writing  with.  A  good  many 
of  the  letters  are  given  in  a  variety  of  forms. 
Some  of  these  are  shown  here  and  are  liable  to  be  some- 
what  unreadable   if    used  in   the   present   day.     For 


ALPHABETS   FOR   STUDY  67 

example,  the  Irish  O  is  shaped  more  like  D,  and 
may  as  well  be  used  instead  of  this  letter,  which  is 
not  very  distinct  in  character.  The  letter  G  would 
be  hardly  recognisable  if  used  in  the  Irish  form,  so 
a  simplified  letter  has  been  suggested.  Some  slight 
modifications  have  also  been  suggested  in  the  letters 
N  and  P.  By  raising  the  cross-bar  in  N  it  conforms 
more  to  the  modern  shape  of  this  letter.  It  is 
necessary  to  simplify  the  Irish  P,  as  this  letter  resembles 
the  letter  R  more  than  anything  else. 

The  next  alphabet,  shown  in  (j),  is  based  on  capitals 
used  in  the  tenth  century,  a  somewhat  stiff  and  severe 
type  of  letter. 

The  last  one  (k)  shows  the  type  of  capital  used  in 
the  eleventh  century. 

Some  further  alphabets  will  be  given  later  on,  when 
dealing  with  illumination. 

The  student  should  not  content  himself  merely 
with  forming  the  letters  given  here,  but  should  study 
the  subject  for  himself.  He  should,  if  possible,  examine 
some  of  the  illuminated  MSS.  exhibited  in  the  various 
museums  in  London  and  elsewhere.  He  is  specially 
recommended  to  study  the  MSS.  produced  between 
the  tenth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  If  he  cannot 
possibly  study  the  actual  MSS.  he  should  experience 
no  difficulty  in  obtaining  reproductions  of  them.  The 
British  Museum  publishes  an  excellent  series  of  collo- 
type plates  of  a  good  number  of  their  choicest  illuminated 
MSS.,  as  well  as  some  splendidly  reproduced  in  gold 
and  colours.  It  will  be  found  that  a  fair  amount  of 
time  given  to  the  study  of  these  old  MSS.  will  well  repay 


68  ILLUMINATION 

in  the  end.  The  way  the  letters  are  massed  together 
should  be  carefully  noted,  as  well  as  the  formation  of 
the  individual  letters.  He  should  note  also  the 
freedom  displayed,  the  letters  not  being  cramped  in 
any  way. 

When  studying  lettering  from  photographs,  or 
photographic  reproductions,  the  proportional  compass 
is  extremely  useful  for  measuring  the  exact  size  of  the 
letters.  The  exact  size  of  the  page  is  nearly  always 
given,  and  it  is  quite  a  simple  matter  to  adjust  the 
compass  so  that,  when  the  measurement  is  taken  with 
the  smaller  end,  the  exact  size  of  the  lettering  can  be 
marked  off  with  the  opposite  end.  This  instrument 
is  most  useful  when  used  in  this  manner,  as  it  is  difficult 
to  gauge  the  exact  size  of  the  lettering  from  the  measure- 
ments of  the  page.  It  is  also  always  advisable  to 
know,  if  at  all  possible,  the  exact  size  of  the  lettering 
in  the  original  when  studying  a  reproduction  of  a 
MS. 

When  examining  MSS.  in  glass  cases,  when  it  is 
not  convenient  to  have  them  taken  out,  a  magnifying 
lens  of  about  five  or  six  inches  focus  is  very  useful  for 
analysing  the  construction  of  fine  lettering.  This 
depth  of  focus  enables  the  lens  to  be  used  through 
the  glass  without  the  necessity  of  having  the  case 
opened. 

The  student  should  seize  every  opportunity  that 
may  arise  to  examine  some  of  the  best  work  of  the 
mediaeval  period. 

For  the  present  he  should  confine  his  attention  to 
the  lettering.     The  decoration  will  be  considered  later 


ALPHABETS  FOR  STUDY  69 

on,  but,  as  this  springs  from  the  lettering,  it  is  essential 
that  sufficient  attention  should  be  given  to  the  founda- 
tion before  attempting  to  build  upon  it.  He  should 
also,  when  opportunity  arise,  examine  some  of  the 
best  modern  work  in  this  direction. 


CHAPTER   VII 

ROMAN    LETTERING 

The  Roman  alphabet  is  certainly  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  all  the  alphabets  that  we  possess.  It  is, 
however,  strictly  speaking,  not  a  pen-formed  alphabet. 
The  fine  forms  of  the  Roman  capitals,  as  exemplified 
in  the  well-known  inscription  on  the  Trajan  Column, 
were  most  certainly  the  result  of  the  evolution  of  chisel 
forms.  The  pen-formed  letters  that  came  after  were 
evolved  from  these  Roman  capitals. 

At  first  the  type  of  letter  used  was  practically  the 
same  as  the  chisel  form.  Writing  with  this  type  of 
letter  must  have  been  extremely  slow  work,  compared 
with  the  simpler  pen-forms  that  came  into  use  later. 
It  is  impossible  to  write,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word, 
when  using  Roman  letters.  Although  in  the  case  of 
the  early  square-capital  writing  these  letters  were 
constructed  in  a  fairly  simple  fashion  with  a  slanted-cut 
pen,  it  is  very  difficult  to  write  with  any  speed  in  this 
manner  and  at  the  same  time  produce  a  well-finished 
letter.  For  general  purposes  it  is  better  to  form  the 
letters  as  shown  in  Fig.  15. 

These  are  constructed  in  quite  a  different  way  from 
the  types  already  shown,  the  difference  being  that  while 


ROMAN  LETTERING  71 

they  were  formed  with  simple  pen-strokes  as  in  ordinary 
handwriting,  these  are  built  up. 

For  the  purpose  of  illumination,  Roman  lettering 
is  not  by  any  means  ideal.  It  is  much  better  to  select 
a  true  pen-formed  alphabet  ;  but  for  modern  usage, 
such   as  the   various   branches   of  commercial   work, 


ABCDEFGHI 
JKLMNOPO. 
RSTUVWXY 

Z/AAAA^ 

abcdefghijklm  n 
opqrstuvwxyz 


Fig.  15. 

Roman  lettering  is  used  a  great  deal.  It  possesses 
one  very  great  advantage,  that  is,  its  legibility.  As 
the  man  in  the  street  has  his  daily  newspaper  printed 
in  a  form  of  Roman  lettering,  he  is  therefore  more 
familiar  with  this  type  than  any  other.  The  greater 
bulk  of  the  commercial  art  of  the  present  day  aims  to 
attract  the  attention  of  this  individual,  so  that  it  is 


72  ILLUMINATION 

necessary  that  it  should  be  just  what  he  can  under- 
stand. To  letter  a  popular  advertisement  in  a  late 
Gothic  lettering  would  be  foolish  in  the  extreme,  as 
he  would,  in  all  probability,  experience  difficulty  in 
deciphering  it.  The  thing  to  aim  at,  in  this  case,  is 
to  do  it  so  that  he  cannot  help  seeing  it.  The  most 
important  thing,  in  the  eyes  of  the  advertiser,  is  not 
so  much  the  design  of  the  poster  as  the  goods  adver- 
tised, and  the  lettering  calling  attention  to  these  must 
be  clear,  distinct,  and  prominent.  Lettering,  there- 
fore, that  is  based  on  the  Roman  type  is  best  for  this 
kind  of  work. 

Illumination,  in  general,  appeals  to  a  different  type 
of  individual.  Something  is  required  that  is  away  from 
the  ordinary.  Also  as  illumination  is  so  inseparably 
bound  up  with  writing,  it  is  almost  essential  that  a 
true  pen-formed  lettering  should  be  used. 

The  Roman  capitals,  as  shown  in  Fig.  15,  are  based, 
to  a  great  extent,  on  those  used  in  the  Trajan  Column 
inscription.  It  will  be  found  that  the  more  practice 
that  one  has  in  forming  letters  with  simple  pen  strokes, 
as  already  shown,  the  easier  it  will  be  to  form  the 
letters  by  building  them  up,  as  in  this  case. 

For  general  purposes  the  easiest  way  to  form  Roman 
letters  is  with  a  pen  cut  with  a  medium  point  and  a 
fairly  long  slit.  The  outward  strokes  should  be  made 
first,  then  the  ones  that  come  inside  the  letter.  The 
serifs  are  then  added,  the  outline  filled  in,  and  the 
letter  is  complete.  The  lower-case  letters  given  are  a 
type  that  may  be  used  in  conjunction  with  the  capitals. 
Apart  from  the  utility  of  this  alphabet,  the  student 


ROMAN   LETTERING  73 

will  find  that  forming  these  letters  in  this  way  will  be 
extremely  good  practice.  He  should  also  practise 
forming  them  with  a  brush.  For  this  purpose  he 
should  use  a  small,  but  firm,  sable  water-colour  brush. 
Construct  the  letters  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as 
when  using  the  pen.  After  a  good  amount  of  practice 
in  this  way  he  will  be  surprised  at  the  dexterity  he 
is  acquiring  with  the  use  of  the  brush.  Then,  using 
a  larger  brush,  he  should  endeavour  to  form  large 
letters  in  this  way.  This  will  be  extremely  useful  for 
writing  large  notices  and  announcements. 

For  work  where  very  accurate  lettering  is  required, 
such  as  high-class  commercial  art,  title-pages,  etc.,  the 
outlines  of  the  letters  should  be  produced  by  means  of 
tee-square,  set-square,  and  compasses.  The  serifs 
also  should  be  carefully  drawn.  In  this  case  it  is  not 
wise  to  go  straight  ahead  with  the  pen,  without  drawing 
first  carefully  in  pencil. 

The  letters  given  in  Fig.  16  are  a  type  of  Roman 
lettering  made  with  simple  direct  strokes  of  the  pen. 
These  will  no  doubt  be  useful,  as  they  may  be  very 
easily  and  quickly  written.  They  should  be  very 
helpful  for  writing  quickly  announcements,  notices, 
etc. 

A  few  notes  may  be  useful  to  the  student  with 
regard  to  the  characteristics  of  the  various  Roman 
capitals. 

The  letter  A  is  sometimes  pointed  at  the  top, 
being  generally  formed  in  this  manner  in  inscriptions, 
but  for  pen-and  brush-formed  lettering  it  is  preferable 
to  finish  it  in  the  wav  shown  in  Fig.  15.     It  should  be 


74  ILLUMINATION 

noticed  that  in  the  letter  B  the  top  part  forms  an  angle 
with  the  upright,  while  the  bottom  part  curves  into  the 
stem.  The  same  thing  applies  to  D,  E,  and  L.  The 
serifs  on  the  lower  limbs  of  E  and  L  should  point  out- 
wards, while  the  serifs  on  the  other  limbs  of  E  are 
quite  straight.     This  also  applies  to  F.     It  is  best  to 


ABCDEFGH 
IJKLMNOP 

QRSTUVW 
,.  XYZ    * 

abcdefghijklmn 
o.pqrstuvwxyz 


Fig.  16. 

make  the  cross-bar  in  H  form  angles  with  the  uprights 
rather  than  curving  into  them.  The  form  of  the  letter 
J  may  be  varied,  the  tail  may  be  curved  round,  but  it 
is  as  well  to  avoid  the  ugly  shape  that  is  in  general 
use.  The  tail  may  project  below  the  line  considerably, 
if  it  is  felt  to  be  necessary,  but  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  exaggerate  this  too  much.  The  same  thing  applies 
to  the  tail  of  the  next  letter,  K.     In  the  letter  M  the  two 


ROMAN   LETTERING  75 

outside  strokes  occasionally  spread  outwards,  and  in 
the  form  used  in  inscriptions  the  top  serifs  are  missing. 
These,  however  are  generally  added  to  the  pen-  or 
brush-formed  letter.  The  same  thing  applies  to  the 
letter  N.  The  letter  O  is  not  quite  a  circle  ;  it  is  some- 
times made  in  the  tilted  form,  i.e.,  as  formed  with  the 
slanted-cut  pen  ;  when  this  is  the  case  all  the  corres- 
ponding curved  letters  should  be  treated  in  the  same 
way.  The  curve  of  P  does  not  always  touch  the  upright 
stem  below.  The  tail  of  the  Q  may  be  lengthened 
occasionally,  as  also  is  the  case  in  the  letter  R.  The 
letter  S  often  leans  slightly  forward,  but  this  tendency 
should  not  be  accentuated  too  much.  The  top  part 
of  this  letter  should  be  made  slightly  smaller  than  the 
lower  part  ;  this  applies  also  to  all  letters  similarly 
divided  in  the  middle.  In  the  letter  T  the  top  gener- 
ally forms  angles  with  the  centre  stem  instead  of 
curving  into  it.  For  general  writing  the  curved  type 
of  U  should  be  used  in  preference  to  the  V  which  is 
used  in  Latin  inscriptions.  W  is  formed  by  crossing 
two  Vs. 

The  student  is  strongly  advised  to  study  some  of 
the  best  historical  examples  of  Roman  lettering.  Some 
of  these  are  detailed  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SOME    HISTORICAL   EXAMPLES   OF   ROMAN   LETTERING 

The  examples  given  in  this  chapter  do  not  pretend  to 
be,  in  any  way,  a  complete  series  of  alphabets  of  Roman 
lettering.  To  go  into  this  matter  properly  would 
require  far  more  space  than  is  available  here.  If, 
however,  sufficient  interest  is  aroused  to  encourage 
the  student  to  study  the  subject  for  himself,  it  will  be 
worth  while  dealing  briefly  with  the  subject  here. 

One  of  the  most  important  alphabets  is  that  used 
in  the  inscription  on  the  base  of  the  Trajan  Column 
(circa  114  a.d.).  To  help  the  student  to  form  these 
letters  in  their  proper  proportions,  each  letter  has  been 
enclosed  in  a  square  (See  Figs.  17-22).  This  should  be 
a  great  help  in  determining  the  correct  form  of  the 
different  letters.  For  example,  take  the  letter  O ; 
this  is  not  quite  a  circle,  as  is  shown  plainly  by  placing 
the  letter  in  a  square.  In  the  case  of  the  W,  as 
this  is  larger  than  the  other  letters,  this  has  been  placed 
in  two  squares. 

As  the  alphabet  from  this  inscription  is  incomplete, 
suitable  forms  have  been  suggested  for  H,  K,  Y,  and  Z. 
Also  additional  letters  have  been  given  for  J,  U,  and 
W,  which  are  necessary  in  modern  usage. 

This    alphabet    is    extremely    beautiful,  and    for 

76 


The  Trajan  Column. 


[Facing p.  70. 


EXAMPLES  OF  ROMAN   LETTERING       77 

important  inscriptions  it  is  hardly  possible  to  find  a 
better  model.  The  student  is  advised  to  make  a 
careful  study  of  this  alphabet. 

When  using'  this  alphabet  for  writing  an  inscrip- 


\N\S\ 


Fig.  17. 

tion  it  is  not  a  bad  plan  to  make  a  small  cardboard 
gauge  giving  the  width  of  the  different  letters  in  propor- 
tion to  the  height  decided  upon.  A  small  gauge  like 
this  is  very  easily  constructed  and  should  be  a  great 
help  in   quickly   spacing   the  letters.     For   example, 

F 


78 


ILLUMINATION 


it  may  be  noted  that  the  letters  C,  D,  G,  H,  K,  M,  N, 
O,  O,  U  and  Z  nearly  fill  the  square,  while  A,  R,  T,  V 
come  next  in  size.  B,  X,  and  Y  are  slightly  narrower, 
while  the  letter  P  is  a  shade  less  than  these.     L  and 


Fig.  18. 


S  are  still  slightly  less  in  width,  and  E  and  F  are  the 
most  narrow  of  all  the  letters,  excepting,  of  course,  I 
and  J.  If  these  various  widths  are  marked  on  the 
edge  of  a  small  strip  of  card  it  ought  to  be  quite  an 
easy  matter  to  space  these  letters  quickly. 

The  first  alphabet  shown  in  Fig.  20  (a)  is  a  free 


EXAMPLES   OF   ROMAN   LETTERING       79 

rendering  from  a  thirteenth-century  inscription  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Ursula,  Cologne.  As  the  alphabet  was 
incomplete  it  has  been  completed,  so  that  it  may  be 
used  without  any  difficulty  arising  through  any  of 
the  letters  being  missing. 


Fig.  19. 

The  next  one  is  from  an  inscription  of  the  early 
part  of  the  fourteenth  century  (b). 

A  late  fifteenth-century  alphabet  is  given  in  (c), 
which  is  taken  from  an  inscription  in  niello  on  a  silver 
plaque  fitted  to  a  reliquary.  This  is  Italian  and  is 
dated  1496. 


80  ILLUMINATION 

The  alphabets  of  capitals  and  minuscules  shown  in 
Fig.  21  are  of  special  interest  to  the  illuminator. 
These  are  based  on  the  writing  used  in  a  late  fifteenth- 
century  illuminated  MS.  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
St.   Augustine's   "  City  of  God  "   (Add.   MS.   15246). 


ct 


ABCDEFG 
OPQR.STUVWXYZ 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMN 
OPQRSTUVWXYZ 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMN 
OPQRSTUVWXYZ 


Fig.  20. 

These  letters  are  formed  with  quite  simple  strokes  of 
the  pen.  In  this  MS.  the  /-shaped  minuscule  s  is  used. 
In  the  alphabet  given  here  this  has  been  substituted 
by  one  more  in  keeping  with  the  modern  type  of  letter, 
and  several  letters  have   been   added  to   make  the 


EXAMPLES   OF   ROMAN   LETTERING      81 

alphabet  complete.  The  student  is  strongly  advised 
to  study  the  lettering  in  this  MS.  for  himself.  It  makes 
a  very  effective  script  if  written  fairly  small  with  a 
crisply-cut  pen. 


ABCDEFGHIl 

JKLMNOPa 
RSTUVWXYZ 

fohijkli 
opqrstuvwxy 


Fig.  21. 

Some  further  alphabets  are  shown  in  Fig.  22.  The 
lettering  from  which  the  alphabet  is  taken  that  is 
shown  in  (a)  is  from  a  title-page  from  "  Utopia  et 
Mori  et  Erasmi  Epigrammata,"  dated  15 18.  It  has 
woodcut  borders  and  title-pages  by  Holbein.  This 
style  of  letter  is  used  throughout  the  book  for  headings, 


82  ILLUMINATION 

etc.  It  is  undoubtedly  a  very  fine  type  of  letter  and  is 
worthy  of  careful  study.  As  has  been  the  case  in  the 
other  alphabets,  this  alphabet  has  been  completed  by 
adding  letters  of  approximate  form  to  supply  the 
missing  ones. 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMN 
OPQRSTUVWXYZ 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMN 
OPQRSTUVWXYZ 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMN 
OPQRSTUVWXYZ 


Fig.  22. 

The  next  alphabet,  given  in  (b),  is  taken  from  an 
inscription  in  marble  on  the  monument  of  the  Marchese 
Spinetta  Malaspina  (d.  1352),  relating  to  its  re-erection 
in  the  Church  of  San  Giovanni  in  Sacco  at  Veiona  in 
1536. 


EXAMPLES   OF   ROMAN   LETTERING       83 

The  last  one  shown  here,  in  (c),  is  from  an  in- 
scription on  the  marble  monument  of  Filippo  Decio 
(d.  1535),  in  the  Campo  Santo,  Pisa,  by  Stagio 
Stagi  (d.  1563). 

Of  course,  numerous  other  examples  might  be  given, 
but  sufficient  have  been  shown  to  enable  the  student 
to  study  the  subject  further  if  he  so  desires.  There 
are  numbers  of  reproductions  from  old  inscriptions 
and  MSS.   easily  obtainable. 

In  studying  these  alphabets  the  student  will  find 
that  it  is  not  a  bad  plan,  after  forming  the  letters 
with  a  pen  as  described  in  the  preceding  chapter,  to 
use  a  brush  as  also  suggested  there.  He  should  then 
endeavour  to  form  them  fairly  large,  working  straight 
away  with  the  brush.  A  good  brush  for  this  purpose 
is  a  sable  "  writer,"  such  as  is  commonly  used  by  sign- 
writers.  Dexterity  with  this  type  of  brush  is  to  a  great 
extent  merely  a  matter  of  practice.  In  fact,  as  has 
been  insisted  on  repeatedly  throughout  this  book, 
practice,  and  plenty  of  it,  will  do  more  than  anything 
else  towards  making  the  student  efficient. 

When  studying  this  subject  further  the  student 
should  note  especially  the  manner  in  which  the  letters 
are  arranged  in  the  various  inscriptions,  as  a  great  deal 
depends  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  letters  and  words. 


CHAPTER   IX 

A    BRIEF    SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY    OF    ILLUMINATION 

(i)    From   the   Fourth   to   the   Eleventh   Century 

Perhaps  it  would  be  as  well,  before  dealing  with  the 
practical  side  of  illumination,  to  give  a  brief  sketch  of 
the  history  of  this  art  in  Europe.  It  will  not  be  possible 
to  do  more  than  give  just  a  very  short  outline  of  the 
history  here.  The  modern  illuminator  should,  how- 
ever, know  something  of  the  history  of  illumination. 
It  is  not  intended  to  deal  with  any  but  vellum  MSS. 
Possibly  it  may  be  claimed  that  some  of  the  Egyptian 
Papyrii  are  illuminated  MSS.,  but  these  have  little  in 
common  with  the  illuminated  work  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  it  is  with  this  that  this  short  review  is  chiefly 
concerned. 

CLASSICAL  AND   BYZANTINE   ILLUMINATION 

It  is  known  from  the  Epigrams  of  Martial,  who  him- 
self lived  in  the  first  century,  that  vellum  MSS.  were 
illuminated  as  early  as  a.d.  ioo.  Although  this  was 
undoubtedly  the  case,  very  few  MSS.  have  survived. 
It  is  very  difficult  to  state  exactly  the  date  of  the 

earliest   of   these,    but   most    authorities   are   of   the 

84 


•^  loll ccnnis  aquiLoc  t 


; '  1 --'k*~~[^'*i-i'>?:- 


The   Lindisfarne   Gospels. 


By  kind  permission  of 
the  British  Museum 


[Facing  p.  84. 


HISTORY   OF   ILLUMINATION  85 

opinion  that  the  third  or  fourth  century  is  the  earliest 
date  that  any  of  them  can  be  assigned  to.  Some  think 
that  the  MS.  of  Virgil  in  the  Vatican  (No.  3225)  is 
the  oldest  illuminated  MS.  This  MS.  is  written  on 
seventy-six  leaves  of  vellum.  It  has  fifty  miniatures, 
but  of  this  number  five  are  scarcely  visible  at  the 
present  time.  These  miniatures  are  framed  with  gilt 
or  coloured  bands,  but  the  MS.  displays  nothing  in  the 
way  of  ornament  which  is  generally  associated  with 
illuminated  work. 

Another  early  MS.  is  the  Ambrosian  Iliad,  at  Milan, 
which  some  think  to  be  of  the  third  century  and  others 
of  the  fourth  or  fifth.  This  is  noted  for  its  fine  hand- 
writing and  also  its  illustrations. 

These  early  MSS.  are  really  illustrated  rather 
than  illuminated,  as  the  term  is  generally  under- 
stood. 

Following  on  after  this  comes  the  Byzantine  School 
of  illumination.  The  most  important  of  the  early  MSS. 
are  the  Dioscorides  and  the  Genesis  of  the  Vienna 
Library.  These  two  MSS.  are  both  thought  to  be 
of  the  sixth  century.  The  first  of  these,  called  after 
its  principal  author  the  "  Dioscorides,"  is  a  collec- 
tion of  treatises  on  botany,  hunting,  etc.,  by  several 
Greek  physicians.  This  was  written  for  the  Princess 
Juliana  Anicia,  daughter  of  Flavius  Anicius  Olybrius, 
who  was  Emperor  of  the  West  in  472.  It  is  written 
in  uncial  characters  and  contains,  amongst  other 
things,  a  portrait  of  Juliana.  It  contains  also  a  number 
of  coloured  drawings  of  plants,  birds,  insects,  etc., 
illustrating  the  text, 


86  ILLUMINATION 

In  the  Vienna  Genesis  the  text  is  written  in  gold 
and  silver  on  purple  vellum.  It  has  forty-eight  minia- 
tures which  are  placed  in  square  frames,  and  there  is 
no  marginal  decoration.  Gold  is  occasionally  used, 
but  it  is  not  burnished. 

There  is  also  a  fragment  of  a  Genesis  Codex  in  the 
British  Museum  (Cott.  Otho.  B.  VI.),  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  of  the  same  period. 

The  Joshua  Rotulus  in  the  Vatican  Library  (Codex 
Vat.  Palat.  Gr.  431)  is  a  very  important  MS.  It  is 
thought  by  some  to  be  a  copy  of  an  original  MS. 
possibly  as  old  as  the  fifth  century.  Opinions,  however, 
differ,  other  authorities  ascribing  it  to  the  fifth  or 
sixth  century. 

Another  well-known  MS.  is  the  famous  Gospel 
Book  in  the  Laurentian  Library  of  Florence,  known 
as  the  Rabula  MS.     This  MS.  is  dated  586. 

The  first  phase  of  the  Byzantine  School  is  Hellen- 
esque,  and,  no  doubt,  it  was  part  of  the  Alexandrian 
School,  which  was  at  its  height  in  the  sixth  century. 
The  later  style,  which  reached  its  maturity  about  the 
end  of  the  ninth  century  and  began  to  decline  after 
the  twelfth  century,  represents  what  is  generally 
understood  as  Byzantine.  A  Simeon  Metaphrastes  of 
the  eleventh-twelfth  century  (Add.  MS.  1180)  and 
a  twelfth-century  Gospels  (Harley  MS.  1810),  both  in 
the  British  Museum,  represent  the  peculiarly  dignified 
ecclesiastical  style  of  this  school. 

The  Byzantine  School  influenced  the  development 
of  illumination  very  strongly.  Especially  is  this 
noticeable  in  Italy. 


HISTORY   OF   ILLUMINATION  87 

CELTIC    AND    ANGLO-CELTIC    ILLUMINATION 

In  the  development  of  illumination  the  Celtic 
School  played  a  most  important  part.  There  is  a 
very  strong  contrast  between  this  and  the  Byzantine 
School.  The  Byzantine  MSS.  were  illustrated  by  more 
or  less  naturalistic  representations,  while  in  the  Celtic 
MSS.  everything  seems  to  be  treated  as  pure  orna- 
ment. Even  when  the  human  figure  is  introduced 
it  seems  to  be  treated  in  this  way.  Gold  is  also 
absent  in  purely  Irish  MSS.  The  artists  do  not 
appear  to  represent  the  figure  with  any  degree  of 
realism. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  Celtic  work  are  intricate 
spirals  and  interlaced  pattern,  also  patterns  composed 
of  dots,  and  curious  elongated  creatures  entwined  to- 
gether in  a  most  complicated  fashion. 

Possibly  the  earliest  date  mentioned  in  connection 
with  Celtic  illumination  is  that  given  by  Giraldus 
Cambrensis,  who  went  to  Ireland  at  the  time  of  the 
Anglo-Norman  invasion.  He  was  chaplain  to  John, 
the  son  of  Henry  II.  He  wrote  concerning  a  famous 
MS.  called  the  Book  of  Kildare,  a  book  which  at 
present  is  not  known  to  be  extant.  He  describes  it 
as  having  been  written  at  the  "  dictation  of  an  angel 
in  St.  Bridget's  own  time."  St.  Bridget,  of  Kildare, 
lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  and  the  early  sixth 
centuries,  so  that,  if  this  account  may  be  relied  upon, 
it  must  have  been  written  at  least  a  century  before  the 
celebrated  Book  of  Kells.  From  the  details  that 
Giraldus   Cambrensis   gives  of  the   Book   of  Kildare, 


88  ILLUMINATION 

he   might    easily   be   describing   the   Book   of    Kells. 
It  was  evidently  very  similar. 

The  Book  of  Kells  is  now  in  the  Library  of 
Trinity  College,  Dublin.  Some  authorities  think  this 
to  be  as  old  as  the  seventh  century,  while  others  assign 
it  to  the  eighth  or  ninth  century.  This  is  an  extremely 
beautiful  MS.  ;  it  has  been  described  so  many  times 
that  there  is  no  need  to  give  a  detailed  description 
here. 

Another  well-known  MS.  is  the  Book  of  Durrow, 
also  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  Some  have  thought 
that  this  was  written  by  the  famous  Columba  of  Iona, 
as  the  name  "  Columba  "  is  mentioned  in  the  colophon 
at  the  end  of  the  MS.,  but  whether  this  Columba  was 
St.  Columba  of  Iona  is,  of  course,  debatable.  Cer- 
tainly a  number  of  authorities  are  agreed  that  its 
claims  to  be  an  actual  relic  of  St.  Columba  are  by  no 
means  to  be  altogether  rejected.  The  Book  of  Durrow, 
although  very  fine,  is  not  such  a  good  example  as  the 
Book  of  Kells. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  know  if  St.  Columba 
had  much  to  do  with  the  cultivation  of  this  art.  The 
early  biographies  certainly  speak  of  him  as  an  en- 
thusiastic calligrapher,  and  in  an  ancient  "  Life  of  St. 
Columba  "  he  is  spoken  of  as  having  written  "  three 
hundred  splendid,  lasting  books." 

It  was  through  the  efforts  of  the  Scoto-Irish  mission- 
aries from  Iona  that  the  art  of  illuminating  was  intro- 
duced into  the  north  of  England.  They  founded  a 
monastery  at  Lindisfarne  early  in  the  seventh  century. 
The  famous  Durham   Book,   or  Lindisfarne  Gospels, 


HISTORY   OF   ILLUMINATION  89 

now  in  the  British  Museum,  was  written  here  about 
the  year  700  (Nero  D.  IV.).  The  decoration  and  writing 
in  this  splendid  MS.  are  essentially  Celtic.  It,  how- 
ever, differs  from  the  Book  of  Kells  by  the  slight  use 
of  gold  in  the  decoration,  also  in  the  four  full-page 
portraits  of  the  Evangelists,  which  show  a  strong 
Italo-Byzantine  influence.  This  MS.  is  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  choicest  treasures  amongst  the  illuminated 
MSS.  in  the  British  Museum. 


CARLOVINGIAN   ILLUMINATION 

At  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  the  great  revival 
of  the  arts  which  followed  the  accession  of  Charle- 
magne acted  as  a  great  impetus  to  the  art  of  illumina- 
tion. This  art  was  developed  from  the  crude  Merovin- 
gian style,  and  many  elaborate  volumes  were  produced. 
Some  of  the  most  sumptuous  are  the  Alcuin  Bibles, 
and  the  Gospel  Books,  which  were  written  in  gold. 
One  of  these  Alcuin  Bibles  is  exhibited  in  the  British 
Museum  (Add.  MSS.  10546),  also  one  of  the  Gospel 
Books  (Harley  MS.  2788).  The  miniatures  and  decora- 
tion in  these  MSS.  seem  to  show  the  influence  of  the 
Roman,  Byzantine,  and  Celtic  Schools.  The  best 
period  of  Carlovingian  illumination  seems  to  be  the 
eighth  century. 

THE   WINCHESTER   SCHOOL 

One  cannot  write  even  the  briefest  of  sketches 
concerning  the  history  of  illumination  without  refer- 
ring to  the  work   produced   by  the   two  Winchester 


go  ILLUMINATION 

Scriptoria,  generally  referred  to  under  the  appellation 
of  "  Opus  Anglicum." 

The  Anglo-Celtic  tradition  seems  to  have  been 
completely  lost,  probably  due  to  the  Danish  raids  in 
the  ninth  century. 

It  is  said  that  in  the  time  of  Alfred  the  Great,  there 
was  a  scriptorium  already  in  existence  at  Winchester, 
founded  by  St.  S within,  who  was  made  Bishop  of 
Winchester  in  852.  Alfred,  when  a  boy  of  five, 
went  with  his  father  to  Rome,  and  there  is,  at  the 
very  least,  presumptive  evidence  that,  when  return- 
ing, he  saw  the  library  of  Charlemagne  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle. 

When  he  came  to  the  throne  in  871  he  founded 
another  monastery  near  the  old  one,  attaching  a 
scriptorium.  These  two  scriptoria  were,  at  a  later 
date,  to  become  the  nursery  of  English  illumination. 

Although  Alfred  seems  to  have  done  so  much  to 

foster  this  art,  there  are,  unfortunately,  no  specimens 

which   have   survived   that   can   be   assigned  to   any 

earlier    date    than    that    of    his    grandson    Athelstan 

(925-40). 

A  small   MS.   known  as  Athelstan's   Psalter  was 

principally  written  on  the  Continent  in  the  ninth 
century,  but  many  additions  were  made  to  it  in  Eng- 
land towards  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century.  This 
MS.  shows  that  some  efforts  had  been  made  to  replace 
the  lost  art  of  the  Anglo-Celtic  School,  which  had 
flourished  more  than  200  years  before  by  a  new  style 
based  on  Continental  models  ;  and,  although  these 
miniatures  may  appear  somewhat  crude,  they  probably 


HISTORY   OF  ILLUMINATION  91 

represent  the  best  work  of  the  English  artists  at  this 

early  period. 

The  first  known  example  of  actual  Winchester 
work  is  the  "  Golden  Charter  "  of  King  Edgar,  in  966, 
now  in  the  British  Museum  (Cott.  MS.  Vesp.  A.  VIII.). 
This  represents  an  enormous  advance  on  the  crude 
paintings  in  Athelstan's  Psalter  ;  a  miniature  on  a 
purple  ground  shows  King  Edgar,  standing  between 
the  Virgin  and  St.  Peter,  offering  the  Charter  to  the 
Saviour.  This  page  is  well  designed  and  a  fine  decora- 
tive border  surrounds  the  miniature. 

The  most  famous  example,  however,  is  the  well- 
known  Benedictional  of  iEthelwold,  in  the  Library  of 
the  Duke  of  Devonshire.  If  the  student  wishes  for 
a  full  and  illustrated  description  of  this  fine  MS. 
he  is  referred  to  the  twenty-fourth  volume  of  the 
Archaeologia. 

This  MS.  was  written  by  Godeman,  a  monk  of  the 
old  Minster,  at  Winchester  ;  it  contains  twenty  large 
miniatures,  each  facing  a  benediction  for  the  most 
important  days,  with  seven  others  of  groups  of  Con- 
fessors, Virgins,  and  Apostles  at  the  beginning,  and 
at  the  end  the  bishop  is  represented  giving  a  benedic- 
tion in  his  cathedral.  All  these  miniatures,  excepting 
the  last,  are  surrounded  with  arches  or  frames  of  gold 
and  colours,  and  a  similar  border  surrounds  the 
opening  words  of  the  benediction. 

The  Harleian  Psalter  (Harl.  MS.  2904),  in  the 
British  Museum,  is  another  MS.  of  this  school.  It 
would  take  far  too  much  space  to  go  into  details  con- 
cerning this,  but  special  mention  should  be  made  of 


gi  ILLUMINATION 

the  drawing  of  the  Crucifixion.  This  is  in  outline  and 
is  slightly  tinted  and  shaded.  It  is  very  interesting 
as  showing  the  stage  that  figure-drawing  had  reached 
at  this  early  period.  One  very  characteristic  feature 
of  Winchester  work  is  the  curious  "  fluttering  "  drapery 
which  is  noticeable  in  practically  all  the  work  of  this 
school. 


CHAPTER  X 

A    BRIEF    SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORY    OF    ILLUMINATION 

(continued) 
(2)  From  the  Twelfth  Century  to  its  Decline 

ILLUMINATION  IN  THE  TWELFTH  CENTURY 

A  great  change  is  noticeable  in  the  illuminated  work 
of  the  twelfth  century,  one  of  the  most  important 
being  the  development  of  initial  decoration  and  the 
use  of  raised  and  burnished  gold,  and  especially  the 
miniatures,  which  were  often  introduced  within  the 
initial  letters.  The  art  of  illumination  gained  con- 
siderably during  this  century,  of  which  the  second  half 
is  notable  for  the  number  of  richly-illuminated  Bibles 
of  large  size  that  were  produced. 

In  England  during  this  century  there  is  a  great 
difference  between  the  work  produced  and  that  of  the 
preceding  century.  Probably  a  number  of  things  may 
be  instanced  as  having  caused  this.  There  is  hardly 
a  doubt  but  that  the  Norman  Conquest  may  have  had 
a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  introduction  of  Continental 
ideas.  It  is  also  possible  that  the  Crusades  may  have 
been  responsible  for  a  better  knowledge    concerning 

the  Byzantine  and  Eastern  Schools. 

93  G 


94  ILLUMINATION 

The  framing  borders  to  the  miniatures,  etc.,  are 
somewhat  different  to  the  loose  entwined  borders  of 
the  Winchester  School,  being  generally  simple  rect- 
angular bands,  either  displaying  a  simple  pattern  or 
else  practically  plain  and  severe.  It  is  in  initial- 
ornament  that  the  greatest  development  is  noticeable. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  century  some  very  beauti- 
ful initials  filled  with  conventional  foliage  with  human, 
animal,  and  grotesque  forms  entwined  were  produced. 
Both  in  miniature  painting  and  also  in  outline  drawing 
a  very  definite  style  was  formed. 

The  Psalter  of  Westminster  Abbey  (Royal  MS. 
2  A.  XXII.)  is  a  good  example  of  the  miniature  painting 
of  this  period,  while  the  famous  Guthlac  Roll  (Harley 
Roll  Y.  6)  affords  a  good  example  of  the  outline  drawing 
of  this  period. 

THIRTEENTH-CENTURY   ILLUMINATION 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  style  of  decoration 
was  more  refined.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful  work 
in  the  whole  history  of  illumination  was  produced  in 
this  century.  Numerous  examples  abound,  and  these 
deserve  very  careful  study.  The  ornamental  border, 
which  had  practically  disappeared  in  the  twelfth 
century,  gradually  re-developed  during  this  century; 
first  in  the  form  of  a  growth  from  the  initial  letter,  it 
developed  into  a  foliated  border  upon  which  small 
animals,  birds,  and  quaint  little  figures  were  placed. 

Some  of  the  French  MSS.  of  this  period  are  particu- 
larly  beautiful.     Bibles   are   numerous,    being   often 


HISTORY    OF   ILLUMINATION  95 

quite  small  in  size.  Some  of  these  MSS.  appear 
to  be  as  perfect  as  if  they  had  just  been  completed, 
the  gold  being  still  brilliant  and  the  colours  still 
retaining  their  freshness.  All  the  MSS.  of  this  period 
seem  to  follow  a  general  scheme  of  decoration.  For 
example,  the  opening  page  of  Genesis  is  one  of  the 
most  elaborate,  being  taken  up  with  a  series  of  minia- 
tures representing  the  days  of  Creation  ;  the  Jesse 
tree  was  also  represented  at  the  opening  of  the  Gospels. 

In  the  latter  half  of  this  century  diaper  backgrounds 
were  used  a  great  deal  in  the  miniatures,  and  in  some 
cases  burnished  gold  was  used  with  patterns  indented 
upon  it. 

A  typical  example  of  a  thirteenth-century  Bible 
is  shown  in  the  Bible  of  Robert  de  Bello,  who  was 
Abbot  of  St.  Augustine's,  Canterbury,  1224 — 1253. 
This  MS.  is  in  the  British  Museum  (Burney  MS.  3). 
It  is  written  in  a  minute  hand  and  illuminated  with 
figure  initials  and  partial  borders.  The  initial  I 
of  Genesis  is  quite  characteristic  of  thirteenth-century 
work. 

Another  MS.  in  the  British  Museum,  a  Bible  History, 
moralized,  in  Latin  (Add.  MS.  18719),  is  a  good  example 
of  the  outline  drawing  at  the  end  of  this  century.  This 
is  a  MS.  of  the  French  School. 

Another  fine  French  MS.,  of  about  1300,  also  in 
the  British  Museum,  is  that  of  the  Somme  le  Roi 
(Add.  MS.  28162),  which,  with  its  bright  colours  and 
burnished  gold,  is  a  good  example  of  the  best  French 
work  of  this  period. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  other  MSS.  that  might 


96  ILLUMINATION 

be  detailed,  these  instanced  here  being  merely  typical 
of  the  general  style  of  work  produced  in  this  century. 

ILLUMINATION   IN   THE   FOURTEENTH 

CENTURY 

The  illumination  of  the  fourteenth  century  was  a 
development  of  the  work  of  the  preceding  century. 
Nature  was  copied  more,  and  natural  foliage  treated  in 
a  conventional  manner  was  largely  used.  The  oak, 
the  hawthorn,  the  ivy,  and  various  other  natural 
growths  were  frequently  employed.  Especially  was 
this  the  case  with  the  ivy,  which  in  the  French  MSS. 
was  used  a  great  deal.  The  use  of  very  large  initials 
was  not  so  usual,  but  while  the  initials  decreased  in 
size  the  technique  improved.  This  tendency  towards 
naturalism  developed  more  and  more  as  the  century 
advanced.  These  natural  forms,  however,  were  still 
considered  as  decoration  and  were  not  mere  naturalistic 
renderings. 

Miniature  painting  was  also  developed  in  this 
century;  indeed,  the  art  of  illumination  is  generally 
considered  to  have  reached  its  highest  point  of  develop- 
ment in  this  century.  Certainly  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  richly-decorated  MSS.  are  of  this  period. 

There  is  a  fine  example  of  English  work  of  the  early 
fourteenth  century  in  the  British  Museum  in  the  MS. 
known  as  Queen  Mary's  Psalter  (Royal  MS.  2  B.  VII.). 
This  MS.  is  very  interesting,  as  it  not  only  has  the  usual 
richly-illuminated  pages,  but  also  a  large  number  of 
lightly  tinted  outline  drawings 

A  beautiful  example  of  French  miniature  work  of 


HISTORY   OF   ILLUMINATION  97 

the  early  part  of  this  century  is  shown  in  an  Apocalypse, 
also  in  the  British  Museum  (Royal  MS.  19  B.  XV.). 
The  miniatures  in  this  MS.  are  drawn  in  outline  and 
slightly  tinted,  on  grounds  of  dark  blue  and  red. 

Another  fine  French  MS.  in  the  British  Museum 
is  an  Epistle  in  French  by  Philippe  de  Maizieres,  Celestin 
of  Paris,  to  Richard  II.  of  England,  advocating  peace 
and  friendship  between  him  and  Charles  VI.  of  France, 
1395-1396.  This  affords  a  good  example  both  of 
miniature  work  and  ivy-leaf  decoration. 

Some  initials  that  have  been  cut  from  a  large  Missal 
(Add.  MSS.  29704,  29705)  show  the  development  of 
rich  decoration  in  England  towards  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century. 


ILLUMINATION    IN   THE   FIFTEENTH 
CENTURY   AND   LATER 

In  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  work 
of  the  French  School  was  undoubtedly  superior  to 
that  of  the  English.  The  ivy-leaf  decoration  of  the 
fourteenth  century  was  developed  into  an  elaborate 
decorative  scheme.  The  gold  and  diaper  backgrounds 
began  to  be  dispensed  with  and  natural  scenery  was 
substituted.  In  fact  miniature  painting  became  more 
and  more  naturalistic  in  treatment,  and  the  same  ten- 
dency is  noticeable  in  the  decoration,  which,  although 
often  most  elaborate  and  highly  finished,  is  not  to  be 
compared  with  the  earlier  work. 

In  this  century,  Flemish  illumination,  which 
during  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  was 


98  ILLUMINATION 

very  similar  in  style  to  the  French  and  English  MSS., 
developed  into  a  most  distinctive  style  specially  notable 
for  its  fine,  delicate  drawing.  An  illuminated  MS.  in 
the  British  Museum,  "  Mandeville's  Travels  "  (Add. 
MS.  24189),  is  an  example  of  this  style.  It  contains 
twenty-seven  miniatures,  without  text,  illustrating 
Sir  John  Mandeville's  travels.  These  are  drawn  with 
a  pen  on  vellum  that  has  been  tinted  a  soft  pale  green- 
They  have  been  shaded  in  black  and  white  with  a 
brush,  and  colour  is  used  for  flesh  tints,  foliage,  etc., 
and  gold  is  also  used  for  crowns,  nimbi,  etc. 

In  Flemish  illumination  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century  miniature  painting  became  highly 
developed,  becoming  more  realistic.  The  decoration 
became  debased,  becoming  eventually  merely  a  frame 
of  gold  or  colour  upon  which  were  painted  realistic 
representations  of  flowers,  fruit,  insects,  etc.  These 
were  often  beautifully  painted,  and  the  miniatures 
also  show  great  skill  from  a  technical  standpoint,  but 
lacking  generally  the  fine  feeling  that  characterises 
the  work  of  the  earlier  periods. 

This  later  style  is  represented  by  a  number  of  MSS. 
in  the  British  Museum.  One  only  is  mentioned  -here, 
although  this  is  but  one  of  many.  The  "  Hours  of  the 
Virgin  "  (Egerton  MS.  1147). 

The  Breviary  of  John,  Duke  of  Burgundy  (Harley 
MS.  2897),  and  the  "  Book  of  Hours  "  of  John,  Duke 
of  Bedford  (Add.  MS.  18850),  are  two  famous  MSS. 
of  the  French  School  at  this  period,  now  in  the  British 
Museum. 

"  The    Missal   of    William    Melrith,    Alderman    of 


HISTORY   OF  ILLUMINATION  99 

London"  (Arundel  MS.  109),  is  an  example  of  English 
illumination  of  the  first  half  of  this  century. 

In  Italy,  as  was  the  case  in  regard  to  writing,  the 
illuminators  in  the  early  part  of  this  century  seem  to 
have  gone  back  to  the  period  of  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  for  models.  A  familiar  type  ot 
decoration  is  formed  of  twining  vine-tendrils,  generally 
in  white  on  coloured  grounds.  Another  type  that  was 
in  use  a  great  deal  was  a  delicate  style  of  decoration 
composed  of  a  conventional  treatment  of  flowers, 
foliage,  etc.,  studded  with  a  large  number  of  raised 
gold  spots  brilliantly  burnished,  outlined  and  rayed. 
In  course  of  time  these  styles  became  much  more 
elaborated  with  medallions,  vases,  candelabra,  portrait 
busts,  realistic  renderings  of  gems,  and  Renaissance 
figures. 

Some  examples  of  late  Italian  work  in  the  British 
Museum  are  as  follows  : —  St.  Augustine's  "  Commentary 
on  the  Psalms"  (Add.  MS.  14799)  ;  "  L^iz,  de  Bello 
Macedonico,"  etc.  (Harley  MS.  3694) ;  "  Book  of  Hours," 
of  Bona  Sforza,  Duchess  of   Milan  (Add.  MS.  34294). 

When  the  art  of  printing  from  type  was  first  prac- 
tised, this  did  not  at  once  stop  the  production  of 
illuminated  MSS.  The  large  number  of  MSS.  that 
were  produced  after  this  date  shows  quite  plainly  that, 
except  in  the  commoner  class  of  books,  the  MS.  book 
still  occupied  the  most  prominent  place.  Professional 
illuminators  were  still  employed  by  people  in  high 
positions,  and  some  very  costly  and  elaborate  volumes 
were  produced.  Many  of  the  early  printed  volumes 
were  printed  with  spaces  left  for  initials,  miniatures, 


ioo  ILLUMINATION 

etc.,  to  be  filled  in  by  the  illuminator.     However,  in 
course  of  time  this  art  gradually  fell  into  disuse. 

This  brief  summary  of  the  history  of  this  art  is 
necessarily  incomplete  ;  it  has  not  been  possible  to 
deal  thoroughly  with  this  subject  here.  It  is  hoped, 
however,  that  the  student  will  continue  the  study  of 
the  historical  side  of  illumination,  and  that  this  little 
sketch  will  serve  as  an  introduction  to  further  study. 


(J 


'_ 


CHAPTER   XI 

THE    INITIAL   LETTER 

If  the  illuminated  MSS.  of  the  Middle  Ages  are  care- 
fully studied,  the  importance  of  the  initial  letter  as  a 
starting-point  for  the  growth  of  the  decoration  cannot 
possibly  escape  one's  notice.  The  rough  sketches 
shown  in  Figs.  23  and  24  trace  the  development  in 
this  direction  through  the  various  centuries.  These 
are  given  simply  to  indicate  the  way  in  which  the  initial 
letter  was  used  in  the  different  periods.  The  student 
is  strongly  advised  to  study  the  subject  for  himself. 
If  he  cannot  examine  the  details  from  the  actual  MSS., 
there  are  plenty  of  excellent  reproductions  published 
which  will  enable  him  to  study  them  at  his  leisure.  It 
is,  however,  practically  essential  that,  even  if  he  cannot 
spend  much  time  over  them,  he  should  make  a  point 
of  at  least  seeing  some  of  the  actual  work  of  the 
mediaeval  artists. 

In  the  famous  Book  of  Kells  the  initial  letter  is 
used  to  great  advantage.  It  will  well  repay  the  student 
to  study  carefully  some  good  reproductions  of  the 
pages  of  this  wonderful  MS.  It  shows  what  can  be 
done  with  fine  decoration  based  on  lettering.  Quite  a 
number  of  pages  are  taken  up  with  the  words  Liber 


102 


ILLUMINATION 


generationis  Christi,  while  one  page  is  entirely  devoted 
to  the  sacred  monogram  X  P  I. 

In  Fig.  23  an  example  is  shown  in  (a)  from  the  famous 
Lindisfarne  Gospels,  now  in  the  British  Museum 
(Cotton  MS.,  Nero  D.  IV.).  This  beautiful  MS.  is 
written  in  fine,  half-uncial  characters,  the  decoration 


V""'. '"^L>  fe 


SRATifXItEKKvBS 

|E3SBfcSMflXW4 
j  maceetiusi  mRi<\\osm 

VgBBBUmBBBBBBm 

a 


ONEMMEAO? 
ETCLAMORME 

US^OTe  VENI/iT 
Kftui  iinum  'w«»  uu^i 

|IU1  MUlHfll  ill-  ItltUHl' 

liium*  1111  uihm»w  'mi 


tlUAi  «'  (61  d»«il  1UU* 
1*1,  lnn  mtjltliiliHlltu- 

I  .In, mil  .inn. linn  mi'  n» 

u\liiuiriti  Aim  W'u'uu        J 


BE 

Jj-SiiSK 

.••(■'•Ml 

f(Mt«U.« 

r 


Fig.  23. 


being  of  the  kind  known  as  Hiberno-Saxon,  or  Anglo- 
Celtic.  A  note  at  the  end  of  this  MS.  states  that  it 
was  written  by  Eadfrith,  Bishop  of  the  Church  of 
Lindisfarne.  It  was  finished  about  the  year  700. 
It  has  a  most  interesting  history,  which  is  much  too 
detailed  to  describe  here.  It  should,  however,  be 
carefully  studied  from  the  standpoint  now  being  con- 
sidered, viz.,  the  initial  letter.     The  page  represented 


THE   INITIAL  LETTER  103 

by  this  rough  sketch  is  the  opening  page  of  the  Gospel 
of  St.  Matthew.  Of  course  this  very  rough  suggestion 
can  convey  no  idea  of  the  beauty  of  the  original,  but 
it  gives  one  some  notion  of  the  way  in  which  the  mono- 
gram X  P  I  has  been  used  as  a  basis  for  the  decoration. 

Perhaps  it  would  be  as  well  for  the  student  to  study, 
for  the  present,  some  of  the  MSS.  of  the  best  periods 
from  this  standpoint  alone.  He  should  note  exactly 
how  the  letters  are  placed  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  used.  For  the  time  being  he  should  not  con- 
cern himself  so  much  with  the  details  of  the  decoration. 
This  may  follow  later,  after  he  has  become  more 
familiar  with  the  subject. 

The  page  shown  in  (b)  is  from  a  Psalter  probably 
written  at  Winchester  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth 
century  (Harley  MS.  2904).  It  is  the  commencement 
of  Psalm  ci.  This  is  also  in  the  British  Museum,  as 
also  are  all  the  examples  illustrated  here.  It  is  quite 
different  to  that  of  the  Lindisfarne  Gospels,  although 
possibly  some  Celtic  influence  may  be  noted. 

The  next  one  (c)  is  also  from  a  Psalter  (Arundel  MS. 
60).  This  is  a  further  development  of  the  same  school 
as  the  last,  and  was  probably  written  at  New  Minster, 
Winchester,  about  1060.  It  is  interesting  to  observe 
how  the  D  is  linked  up  with  the  border. 

The  initial  B,  illustrated  by  (d),  is  from  a  twelfth- 
century  Psalter  of  Westminster  Abbey  (Royal  MS. 
2  A.  XXII.).  Very  large  initials  were  very  common 
during  this  period.  This  letter  is  filled  with  foliage, 
animals,  etc.,  and  also  shows  scenes  from  the  life  of 
David.     The  initial  B  at  the  commencement  of  the 


104  ILLUMINATION 

Psalms  was  a  favourite  subject  with  the  illuminator 
at  this  time.  He  generally  introduced  the  subject  of 
David  slaying  Goliath  also. 

A  common  feature  of  the  thirteenth-century 
illumination  was  the  use  of  large  decorated  examples  of 
the  initial  I,  of  which  an  instance  is  given  in  (e).  These 
were  filled  with  miniatures  and  foliage  and  were 
extremely  decorative  in  character.  This  one  is  from 
a  French  Gospel  Lectionary  (Add.  MS.  17341),  and 
is  filled  with  scenes  from  the  Life  of  Christ. 

A  charming  example  is  shown  in  (/),  which  is  from 
a  Book  of  Hours  (Stowe  MS.  17).  The  initial  D  con- 
tains a  miniature,  as  also  does  the  A.  This  is  probably 
either  late  thirteenth  or  early  fourteenth  century. 
David  and  Goliath  are  also  represented.  The  whole 
MS.  is  delightful  in  style. 

Fig.  24  shows  some  more  examples.  Another  page 
from  a  Book  of  Hours  is  given  in  (g)  (Egerton  MS. 
2781).  This  is  a  fourteenth-century  MS.  The  initials 
and  borders  are  rather  rough  in  technique,  but  they 
are  very  interesting  from  the  point  of  view  of  design. 
The  large  initial  D  has  a  miniature  representing  a 
legendary  story  of  the  childhood  of  Christ. 

The  initial  A  shown  in  (h)  is  from  a  fourteenth 
century  Missal  (Harley  MS.  2891).  The  letter  is 
filled  with  a  most  delightful  miniature. 

The  next  example  (i)  is  a  very  beautiful  initial 
taken  from  a  Bible  executed  in  England  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century  (Royal  MS. 
1  E.  IX.).  A  number  of  the  initials  are  filled  with 
foliage,  as  in  this  case,  and  others  contain  miniatures. 


THE   INITIAL   LETTER 


105 


The  backgrounds  of  these  letters  are  usually  of  bur- 
nished gold  with  patterns  indented  upon  them. 

A  simple,  but  very  beautiful,  type  is  given  in  (;). 
This  is  taken  from  an  extremely  fine  MS.  written,  also, 
at  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  (Royal  MS. 
20  B.  VI.).     It  is  a  very  interesting  MS.,  being  an 


iiwmitu  i/btMiutmuv 

1  .y!.   int  uttt«i  1  up-  ** 
IMim  u«  fat  nnm  »<■  *WH 

»utr>*»  >«u  w  Mutant*1 

*\   *'U    I1M    UM<    U'.HW 


LUUIU1U41 
lliUU  IIUUiiAiniiMlM 

1 


lUUa 


Fig.  24. 


Epistle  by  Phillippe  de  Maizieres  to  Richard  II.  of 
England,  advocating  peace  and  friendship  between  him 
and  Charles  VI.  of  France.  This  type  of  initial  was 
fairly  common  at  this  period.  It  is  a  type  of  letter 
that  should  be  very  useful  for  the  beginner. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  the  initial  letter  lost  a 
good  deal  of  its  importance.  The  result  of  this  was 
that  the  decoration  became  debased  in  character,  until 


io6  ILLUMINATION 

it  finally  became  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  number  of 
naturalistic  renderings  of  flowers  and  insects,  painted 
on  a  gold  border  and  represented  as  throwing  shadows 
upon  it.  There  is,  however,  a  certain  amount  of 
sweetness  about  some  of  this  work,  especially  when  it 
is  compared  with  some  of  the  work  of  the  present  day. 
However,  some  of  the  MSS.  that  were  produced  in  the 
earlier  part  of  this  century  are  very  fine  pieces  of  work. 
The  example  illustrated  by  (k)  is  from  a  Psalter  of 
Henry  VI.,  about  1425-1430  (Cotton  MS.  Domitian 
A.  XVII.).     The  large  initial  D  is  joined  to  a  miniature. 

Several  initials  are  given  in  (/).  These  are  all  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  The  E  is  of  raised  and  bur- 
nished gold  on  a  blue  block,  the  centre  being  red  and 
the  whole  finished  with  white  lining.  The  N,  P,  and 
U  are  of  a  type  largely  used,  being  generally  red  with 
blue  pen-work,  or  vice  versa.  The  others  are  similar 
to  the  E,  but  are  shown  as  an  example  of  how  they  were 
joined  when  coming  close  together. 

Excellent  reproductions  of  these  examples  have 
been  published  by  the  British  Museum  authorities 
in  a  series  of  collotype  plates,  the  only  exception 
being  (e)  in  Fig.  23,  of  which  an  illustration  is  published 
in  the  Guide  to  the  MSS.,  Part  III. 

The  main  object  of  this  chapter  is  to  direct  the 
student  to  the  study  of  the  MSS.  for  himself  and  especi- 
ally to  show  what  an  important  place  the  initial  letter 
had  in  the  MSS.  of  the  mediaeval  period.  He  is 
strongly  advised  to  make  a  point  of  studying  some  of 
the  actual  MSS.  for  himself. 


xra%i9traJ2^j^&?3ra 


I 


8 

! 


j 

S 


njoy^ 


tke  blessiryrs. 
of  this  cLxtj  j^ 
if  God  sends^ 

tketrv;  artel  tke  evils  bear.^ 

patientiu  and,  su?eetlu .  ^7 
^or  this  dau  is  ours ;  tue^> 

arc  dead,  to  uesterdau,  ^js? 

and  we  are  not  bor  rt  to  J*? 

to  -  mor  rOU?.  —  Jcrcmu  Tzaijlor. 


rte^b^v^^^ 


A  Simple  Pocge  irv  Blxcek^ &•  KjlcL^ 


[Facing  p.  107. 


CHAPTER   XII 

SIMPLE  ILLUMINATION  IN  BLACK  AND  RED 

A  good  deal  of  very  effective  work  can  be  done  by 
using  black  and  red  only.  The  student  should  be  able 
to  do  good  work  in  this  way  before  attempting  to  use 
gold  and  colours. 

A  method  for  setting  out  the  page,  before  commenc- 
ing to  write,  is  shown  plainly  in  Fig.  25.  For  this 
purpose  a  tee-square  and  set-square  are  required, 
together  with  a  pair  of  spring  dividers  and  a  sharply- 
pointed  HB.  pencil.  The  approximate  size  of  the 
page  and  the  distance  between  the  lines  of  lettering  must 
be  decided.  Then  the  margins  at  the  top  and  the  two 
sides  must  be  marked  out,  and  the  upright  lines 
drawn  in  by  means  of  the  set-square.  The  distance 
between  the  lines  of  lettering  is  then  pricked  off  down 
one  side  with  the  spring  dividers.  The  lines  can  then 
be  ruled  across  against  the  tee-square.  A  word  of 
caution  is  perhaps  needed  here  :  the  pencil  should  be 
held  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  and  kept  at  the  same 
angle  during  the  ruling  of  the  line.  If  this  rule  is  not 
carefully  observed,  it  is  possible  to  start  with  the  point 
of  the  pencil  close  up  against  the  edge  of  the  tee-square, 

or  set-square,  and  finish  the  line  with  it  about  one- 

107 


io8 


ILLUMINATION 


sixteenth  of  an  inch  away  from  it.  If  this  habit  is 
developed,  the  lines  of  lettering  will  hardly  ever  be 
quite  straight  and  even.  Another  important  detail 
is  to  see  that  the  tee-square  rests  tightly  against  the 
edge  of  the  board,,  and  the  set-square  against  the  tee- 
square. 


Mon«l  oTrJZ"*!  our  p^t 


£pnnj 


Dm4c-» 


en 

is  <5ne 


Fig.  25. 


It  will  be  found  that  an  HB.  pencil  is  the  most 
satisfactory  grade  for  ruling  the  lines  with,  as  if  used 
lightly  the  lines  can  be  cleaned  off  quite  easily  after- 
wards with  a  piece  of  soft  rubber.  Some  illuminators 
recommend  an  H.  or  HH.  pencil  for  this,  but, 
although  these  keep  a  sharp  point  longer,  the  lines 
produced  are  not  so  easily  erased. 

After  ruling  the  page  the  next  thing  to  be  settled 
is  the  size  of  the  initial  letter.  It  should  be  lightly 
sketched  in  with  the  pencil .  It  is  best  to  use  the  writing 
lines  to  govern  the  size  of  this.  For  example,  the  size 
of  this  letter  might  be  four  or  five  lines  down. 


ILLUMINATION   IN   BLACK  AND   RED     109 

It  is  very  effective  to  have  the  first  few  words  in 
capitals.  Several  different  arrangements  are  shown  in 
Fig.  25.  The  position  ol  these  may  be  roughly  planned 
out  in  pencil.  They  may  then  be  written  in  red  straight 
away,  or  may  be  left  until  after  the  black  lettering  is 
done.  It  is  best  not  to  finish  the  initial  until  after  the 
lettering  is  done. 

When  the  position  of  the  initial  and  the  opening 
words  is  determined,  the  black  lettering  should  be  pro- 
ceeded with.  The  student  should  endeavour  to  ensure 
perfect  freedom  in  working,  also  to  aim  at  preventing 
the  writing  from  looking  as  if  a  great  deal  of  trouble 
had  been  taken  to  make  it  fit  and  space  well.  For 
anyone  to  derive  any  joy  out  of  it,  there  must  be  a 
feeling  of  spontaneity  and  freedom  about  it.  He 
should  allow  his  imagination  to  work  when  writing. 
If  he  studies  the  words  that  he  is  writing  he  is  bound 
to  have  suggestions  come  to  his  mind.  For  example, 
perhaps  one  verse  seems  to  stand  out  very  prominently, 
and  it  is  felt  that  it  would  be  better  if  written  entirely 
in  red.  Or,  again,  another  verse  seems  to  start  a  new 
line  of  thought,  and  a  fresh  initial  is  suggested. 

After  the  writing  is  completed,  attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  initial  and  the  decoration.  A  good  method 
for  the  beginner  is  to  fix  a  sheet  of  tracing-paper  over 
the  page  ;  as  the  lettering  shows  plainly  through,  there 
is  plenty  of  opportunity  for  experimenting  with 
decoration. 

Some 'good  types  of  letters  suitable  for  initials  are 

shown  in  Fig.  26.     The  first  alphabet  is  based  largely  on 

a  type  of  letter  used  in  the  eleventh  century,  while  the 

H 


Iio  ILLUMINATION 

second  one  is  a  free  rendering  of  thirteenth-century 
letters.  These  letters  are  all  built  up.  They  may  be 
made  with  either  pen  or  brush. 

Building  up  these  letters  with  strokes  made  with 
the  pen  or  brush  is  excellent  practice  for  the  student. 
For  constructing  the  letters  in  the  first  alphabet  the 


ABCDeFGF)IJK 
LCnnOPORSTG 

—  vcuxyz  — 

-nwvmxyz- 


Fig.  26. 

pen  will  probably  be  found  to  be  the  best  tool.  These 
letters  are  constructed  in  a  similar  manner  to  that 
described  in  an  earlier  chapter  on  forming  Roman 
capitals.  Some  suggestive  details  are  shown  in  Fig.  27. 
The  letters  in  the  second  alphabet  may  be  formed 
much  more  easily  with  a  brush  than  with  a  pen.  It 
will  be  seen  in  Fig.  27  how  naturally  the  letter  is  filled 
in  with  the  brush,  the  end  of  the  stroke  terminating  in 


ILLUMINATION   IN   BLACK  AND   RED     in 

a  small  knob.  For  Ming  in  the  letters  in  this  way  a 
brush  should  be  used  quite  full  of  colour,  and  it  should 
also  have  a  good  point. 

After  having  a  fair  amount  of  practice  in  forming 


A  A  JA\  II  R 


Fig.  27. 

letters  in  this  wav  the  student  will  soon  be  able  to 
produce  them  quickly  and  easily. 

The  terminals  of  these  letters  may  be  drawn  out  if 
necessary,  or  they  may  be  joined  up  with  the  border. 
The  student  should  take  note,  from  the  examples 
given  in  the  previous  chapter,  of  the  manner  in  which 


ii2  ILLUMINATION 

the  initial  was  used  in  the  past  as  a  starting-point  for 
the  decoration. 

Vermilion  is  a  good  red  for  this  purpose.  There 
are  several  varieties  sold,  known  b}'  various  names, 
such  as  scarlet  vermilion,  orange  vermilion,  vermilion, 
and  Chinese  vermilion.  The  kind  known  simply  as 
vermilion  seems  to  answer  best  of  all.  Scarlet  and 
orange  vermilion  are  liable  to  look  somewhat  weak. 
This  also  applies  to  the  Chinese  vermilion  we  are  able 
to  get  in  this  country.  Some  illuminators  prefer  to 
add  a  little  crimson  to  the  vermilion. 

It  is  important  that  the  red  should  be  painted  in 
solid,  and  not  be  thin  and  washy  in  character.  This 
also  applies  to  the  black,  which  should  be  a  decided 
black,  not  inclining  to  brown  or  grey.  The  red  should 
be  kept  quite  bright  and  clean,  care  being  taken  not 
to  get  it  mixed  up  with  dirty  colour  in  any  way.  A 
great  deal  of  the  effect  depends  on  the  strong  black 
and  brilliant  red. 

In  Fig.  28  an  initial  with  a  simple  border  is  shown  in 
{a).  The  initial  letter  and  the  decoration  may  be 
done  in  red,  and  also  the  opening  words. 

Very  decorative  arrangements  are  possible  with 
simple  lettering  and  a  fine  initial,  as  in  (b).  When  an 
initial  letter  is  used  in  this  way,  without  any  border, 
it  is  best  to  fit  it  in  with  the  lettering  so  that  the  line 
of  the  letter  does  not  project  beyond  the  line  of  the 
black  lettering.  When,  however,  a  simple  border  is 
added  down  the  side,  it  may  project,  as  shown  in 

(c). 

An  interesting  arrangement  is  shown  in  (d),  where 


ILLUMINATION   IN   BLACK   AND   RED     113 

two  columns  are  used.  By  the  judicious  use  of  red, 
a  fine  decorated  page  is  possible  if  carried  out  in  this 
style. 


Fig.  28. 


The  initial  0  shown  here  is  an  example  of  what  can 
be  done  with  simple  pattern  work  in  the  way  of  diapers. 
In  the  illuminated  manuscripts  from  the  twelfth  to 
the  fourteenth  centuries  a  great  number  of  these  were 
used.  This  simple  pattern  work  is  very  pleasant,  and 
the  student  is  recommended  to  study  these  for  him- 
self. He  should  also  study  the  fine  initials  with  pen- 
work  in  red  and  blue.  He  can  then  vary  his  work  by 
adding  blue  in  addition  to  red,  using  a  red  initial  with 
blue  decoration,  or  vice  versa. 

The  various  forms  of  simple  pattern  work,  made 


ii4  ILLUMINATION 

with  simple  pen-strokes,  and  shown  here,  should  also 
claim  his  attention.  He  should  endeavour  to  make 
borders  for  himself  in  this  simple  way.  They  may 
serve  as  tail-pieces  and  line  finishings,  and  the  con- 
struction of  these  is  all  good  practice  in  design. 

It  is  excellent  practice  for  the  student  to  write  out 
a  number  of  quotations  in  this  way,  in  black  and  red, 
with  nicely-drawn  initials  and  borders  of  simple  pattern 
work.  He  should  endeavour  to  guard  against  making 
them  too  florid  in  treatment,  and,  above  all,  should  be 
careful  not  to  employ  a  lot  of  meaningless  flourishes. 
The  work  of  the  mediaeval  period  affords  the  best 
examples  for  study  that  he  could  possibly  have. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  COLOURS  USED  BY  THE  MEDIAEVAL  ILLUMINATOR 

One  can  hardly  study  the  illuminated  work  of  the 
Middle  Ages  without  being  interested  in  the  methods 
employed  by  the  artists  of  this  period.  The  MSS. 
still  in  existence,  with  colours  still  fresh  and  bright, 
make  one  curious  to  know  what  colours  were  used  to 
produce  this  result. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  colours  used  in  classical  times 
is  derived  chiefly  from  Pliny's  "  Natural  History  "  and 
the  writings  of  Vitruvius.  Theophrastus,  in  his  work 
on  stones,  also  adds  some  description  of  pigments. 

It  appears  from  these  writers  that  the  earth  colours, 
such  as  the  ochres  and  siennas,  were  well  known,  as 
also  was  the  green  earth  terra  verte.  Blues  and  greens 
were  obtained  from  the  ores  of  copper,  one  of  the  most 
notable  being  azurite,  a  blue  carbonate  of  copper. 
Verdigris  was  prepared  by  the  action  of  vinegar  on 
copper.  Cinnabar,  a  native  variety  of  red  sulphide 
of  mercury  similar  to  our  vermilion,  which  is  the  same 
thing  artificially  prepared,  and  orpiment,  the  native 
sulphide  of  arsenic,  were  also  colours  used  at  this  period. 

A  number  of  white  earths  were  also  employed, 
chalk  being  the  most  important.     White  lead  was  used, 

"5 


ii6  ILLUMINATION 

being  prepared  in  practically  the  same  \va37  as  the  best 
is  to-day.  Lakes  were  made  by  dyeing  chalk  or 
gypsum.  Several  vegetal  dyes  were  used  for  this 
purpose,  such  as  madder,  weld,  and  woad.  In  addition 
to  these  dyes,  lakes  were  prepared  from  kermes  and 
the  celebrated  murex.  Kermes  is  a  red  dye  caused  by  a 
small  insect  similar  to  that  of  the  cochineal  insect  ; 
it  was  used  for  dyeing  and  for  making  pigments,  both 
in  classical  and  mediaeval  times.  The  murex  was  a 
species  of  shellfish  from  which  was  extracted  the  famous 
purple  dye.  This  was  the  dye  used  for  the  purple 
vellum  that  was  used  so  much  in  the  early  period. 

The  blacks  used  were  carbon-blacks,  such  as  lamp- 
black, bone-black,  or  the  black  prepared  from  grape 
husks  and  vine  leaves. 

Indigo  was  undoubtedly  in  use,  and  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  red  resin  known  as  dragon's  blood 
was  also  in  use.  Pliny,  in  his  "  Natural  History," 
describes  the  fighting  between  the  elephant  and  the 
dragon,  and  he  states  that  the  name  cinnabar  should 
be  given  to  the  thick  matter  which  issues  from  the 
dragon  when  crushed  beneath  the  weight  of  the  dying 
elephant,  mixed  with  their  blood.  It  is  thought  that 
he  may  be  referring  to  this  pigment,  for,  in  another 
chapter,  he  refers  to  India  sending  the  corrupt  blood  of 
her  dragons  and  elephants.  There  is  one  colour,  which 
was  one  of  the  principal  pigments  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
of  which  no  mention  is  made  in  the  classical  period, 
and  that  is  ultramarine. 

It  is  difficult  to  be  certain  as  to  how  the  different 
colours  were  mixed,  but  the  ink  used  was  prepared  from 


THE   MEDIAEVAL   ILLUMINATOR         117 

lamp-black   mixed   with   gum   and   water,    and  it   is 
probable  that  the  colours  were  mixed  with  either  gum, 

glue,  or  egg. 

The  Lucca  MS.  of  the  eighth  century,  in  the  cathedral 
library  at  Lucca,  contains,  amongst  other  things,  a 
short  list  of  pigments.  There  is  very  little  difference 
between  the  information  given  here  and  that  given 
by  Pliny.  This  MS.,  however,  gives  the  first  distinct 
directions  for  making  artificial  vermilion.  It  is  also 
interesting  as  giving  definite  information  as  to  how 
colours  were  mixed  for  working  on  parchment  or  vellum, 
as  the  following  quotation  plainly  shows  :  "On  wood 
the  colours  being  mixed  with  wax,  on  skins  fish-glue 
being  mixed." 

In  the  twelfth-century  MS.,  the  Mappas  Clavicula, 
the  greater  part  o±  the  Lucca  MS.  is  repeated. 

The  Schedula  Diversarum  Artium  of  Theophilus 
is  also  of  about  the  same  date,  and  is  a  very  important 
MS.  It  is  divided  into  three  books,  the  first  dealing 
with  painting,  the  second  with  the  manufacture  of 
glass,  and  the  third  with  metal-work.  It  is  evident 
that  Theophilus,  who  was  a  monk  in  some  German 
monastery,  was  a  worker  in  metal.  However,  he 
collected  quite  a  lot  of  information  on  various  forms 
of  art  work.  It  is,  of  course,  in  the  book  on  painting 
that  the  information  with  regard  to  colours  is  found. 

In  Chapter  XXVII.  he  gives  instructions  for  pre- 
paring the  gum  for  mixing  with  colours.  This  is 
described  as  follows:  "Take  gum  which  exudes  from 
the  cherry  or  plum  tree,  and,  cutting  it  up  very  small, 
place  it  in  an  earthenware  pot,  and  pour  water  upon  it 


n8  ILLUMINATION 

abundantly  and  place  it  in  the  sun,  or  in  winter  upon 
the  coals,  until  the  gum  has  liquefied  ;  and  mix  it 
together  with  a  smooth  piece  of  wood.  Then  strain 
it  through  a  cloth,  and  grind  the  colours  with  it  and 
lay  them  on." 

In  Chapter  XXXIV.,  which  is  entitled  "How 
Colours  are  Tempered  for  Books,"  he  says :  "  Make  a 
mixture  of  the  clearest  gum  and  water  as  above,  and 
temper  all  colours  except  green  and  ceruse  and  minium 
and  carmine.  Salt  green  is  worth  nothing  for  books. 
You  will  temper  Spanish  green  with  pure  wine,  and  if 
you  wish  to  make  shadows,  add  a  little  sap  of  iris  or 
cabbage  or  leek.  You  will  temper  minium  and  ceruse 
and  carmine  with  clear  of  egg.  Compose  all  prepara- 
tions of  colours  for  a  book  as  above,  if  you  want  them 
for  painting  figures.  All  colours  are  laid  on  twice  in 
books,  at  first  very  thinly,  then  more  thickly ;  but 
once  for  letters." 

Salt  green,  that  is  mentioned  here,  was  a  mixture 
of  verdigris  and  subchloride  of  copper.  Spanish  green 
was  verdigris,  and  minium  was  red  lead,  while  ceruse 
was  white  lead.  Verdigris  is,  of  course,  a  notoriously 
fugitive  colour,  but  while  in  ordinary  water-colour 
painting  it  would  probably  not  be  safe  to  use,  it  would 
last  fairly  well  in  books.  Certainly  it  seems  to  have 
done  so  in  the  past,  if  one  may  judge  from  the  greens 
in  many  of  the  old  MSS.,  which  are  still  brilliant. 

Other  colours  described  are  those  known  as  "  folium  " 
colours.  These  seem  to  have  been  different  vegetal 
dyes. 

In  Chapter  XL.  he  gives  a  description  of  how  to 


THE  MEDIEVAL  ILLUMINATOR         119 

prepare  ink.  This  is  quite  different  from  the  ink  of 
the  classical  period,  which,  as  mentioned  before,  was 
made  from  lampblack  and  gum-water.  The  ink 
described  by  Theophilus  is  more  of  the  nature  of  our 
modern  writing-ink,  being  prepared  from  the  bark 
of  thorn-trees,  amounting  really  to  an  infusion  of 
tannin,  with  the  addition  of  iron  sulphate,  popularly 
known  as  green  vitriol. 

There  is  no  mention  in  this  MS.  of  the  preparation 
of  ultramarine. 

Following  this  there  are  the  MSS.  that  have  been 
translated  by  Mrs.  Merrifield,  viz.,  Eraclius,  Alcherius, 
the  book  of  Peter  St.  Andemar,  all  included  in  the  MSS. 
of  La  Begue,  the  Sloane  MS.,  and  the  Strassburg  MS. 

The  MS.  of  Eraclius  is  regarded  as  not  being  later 
than  the  thirteenth  century,  the  first  two  books  being 
very  early  and  quoted  by  Theophilus. 

In  these  MSS.  it  is  plainly  stated  that  the  colours 
were  generally  mixed  with  either  gum-water  or  egg. 
White  of  egg  was  often  used,  but  occasionally  the  yolk. 
For  example,  it  seems  to  have  been  used  as  a  medium 
for  vermilion  and  orpiment.  These  MSS.  contain  a 
lot  of  information  very  similar  to  that  in  the  MS.  of 
Theophilus. 

Lakes  were,  in  the  earliest  MSS.,  prepared  in  a 
similar  way  to  that  used  in  the  classical  period,  and 
are  described  in  this  manner  in  the  MS.  of  Eraclius. 
In  the  MS.  of  Jehan  le  Begue,  however,  there  are 
several  recipes  that  have  been  compiled  by  him  from 
the  MSS.  of  Alcherius,  of  the  fourteenth  century,  which 
are  practically  the  same  as  the  modern  method. 


120  ILLUMINATION 

The  MS.  of  Le  Begue  is  also  of  interest,  as  it  con- 
tains a  recipe  for  the  preparation  of  real  ultramarine. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  MS.  of  all  is  that 
known  as  the  Book  of  the  Art  of  Cennino  Cennini. 
This  is  a  most  delightful  treatise  on  the  methods  then 
in  use.  Cennino  Cennini  was  an  Italian  painter  and 
was  living  in  Padua  in  1398.  The  MS.  in  the  Vatican 
is  dated  1437,  but  this  is  in  all  probability  merely  the 
date  attached  by  the  copyist.  It  is  evident  that  the 
colours  and  methods  that  he  mentions  were  in  use 
during  the  fourteenth  century. 

As  this  was  a  period  when  some  of  the  finest 
examples  of  illumination  were  produced,  it  is  interest- 
ing to  note  the  various  colours  used,  so  they  are  given 
in  detail. 

The  reds  mentioned  by  him  are  sinopia,  cinabrese, 
cinnabar,  minium,  amatisto,  dragon's  blood,  and 
lake.  Sinopia  is  a  similar  colour  to  light  red,  either 
native  or  prepared  by  roasting  yellow  ochre.  Cina- 
brese is  a  mixture  of  sinopia  with  chalk.  Cinnabar, 
as  mentioned  before,  is  mercuric  sulphide,  which,  when 
artificially  prepared,  is  termed  vermilion.  There  is 
hardly  any  doubt  that  the  variety  Cennino  was  familiar 
with  was  the  artificial  kind,  for  he  remarks  that  it 
"  is  produced  by  alchemy,  performed  in  an  alembic." 
Minium  is  red  lead,  while  amatisto  is  probably  haema- 
tite. Dragon's  blood,  as  already  referred  to,  is  a 
resinous  colour,  and  lakes  were  prepared  from  various 
dyes. 

The  yellow  pigments  were  ochre,  giallorino,  orpi- 
ment,    risalgallo,    zafferano,    and    arzica.     Giallorino 


THE  MEDIAEVAL   ILLUMINATOR        121 

is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  mineral  yellow  pig- 
ment. It  is  desciibed  by  Cennino  as  a  volcanic 
product.  Some,  however,  think  this  to  be  similar  to 
the  pigment  that  used  to  be  known  as  Naples  yellow, 
which  was  a  compound  of  the  oxides  of  lead  and  anti- 
mony. Risalgallo  realgar,  or  red  orpiment ,  was  prepared 
by  gently  heating  orpiment.  Zafferano  was  saffron, 
while  arzica  was  a  lake  prepared  from  weld,  which  is 
wild  mignonette. 

The  greens  that  he  refers  to  are  verde  terra,  verde 
azzurro,  and  verderame.  Verde  terra  is  the  natural 
earth  known  also  as  terra  verte.  In  all  probability 
verde  azzurro  was  a  native  copper  carbonate, 
similar  to  green  bice.     Verderame  was  verdigris. 

The  blues  used  were  azzurro  della  magna,  azzurro 
oltre  marino,  and  indaco  baccadeo.  Azzurro  della 
magna  was  a  copper-blue  similar  to  the  azurite  of  the 
classical  period.  Azzurro  oltre  marino  was  the  genuine 
ultramarine.  Cennino's  description  of  the  preparation 
of  this  pigment  from  the  lapis  lazuli  is  very  similar  to 
the  recipes  that  are  given  in  other  MSS.  Indaco 
baccadeo  was  indigo  from  Bagdad. 

The  white  pigments  were  bianco  sangiovanni  and 
biacca.  Bianco  sangiovanni  was  whiting  or  chalk, 
while  biacca  was  white  lead. 

The  blacks  were  "  a  soft  black  stone,"  black  "  made 
of  the  young  shoots  of  the  vine,  which  are  to  be  burnt, 
and  when  burnt,  thrown  into  water,  and  quenched,  and 
then  ground  like  other  black  pigments."  Another 
black  pigment  "  is  made  of  the  shells  of  almonds,  or  of 
peach-stones.''     Lampblack  was  also  used. 


122  ILLUMINATION 

The  colours  were  mixed  with  gum  arabic  or  egg. 

Cennino  also  makes  mention  of  the  use  of  the 
pezzuole  colours,  or  clothlet  tints,  which  were  used  a 
great  deal  in  the  Middle  Ages.  These  were  pieces  of 
linen  stained  with  transparent  pigments.  When  re- 
quired for  use,  a  small  piece  was  cut  off  and  soaked  in 
water  to  make  a  tint  of  the  colour,  a  little  gum  being 
added. 

Cennino  also  treats  of  tinting  parchment  with 
various  colours.  This  was  not  done,  as  was  the  custom 
in  the  earlier  period,  by  staining  the  vellum  with  a  dye, 
but  by  washing  a  colour  over  it  with  a  large  brush. 

It  may  be  noted  that  practically  all  the  permanent 
colours  mentioned  in  these  MSS.  are  in  use  to-day. 
Some  of  the  colours  used  in  the  Middle  Ages  can  hardly 
be  recommended  to-day.  The  copper  blues,  for  in- 
stance, are  not  reliable,  as  impure  air  is  very  liable  to 
change  them  into  copper  sulphide.  Orpiment  is  an 
unsafe  colour  to  use,  while  kermes  will  fade  in  a  strong 
light,  besides  being  no  longer  an  article  of  commerce. 
Both  dragon's  blood  and  saffron  are  notoriously  fugi- 
tive colours. 

It  is  hoped  that  these  few  brief  notes  with  regard 
to  the  colours  used  by  the  mediaeval  artist  may  be  of 
interest  to  the  student.  If  he  wishes  to  study  this 
subject  further  he  is  referred  to  the  various  works 
mentioned. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

COLOURS  :     THEIR   COMPOSITION   AND    PERMANENCE 

One  of  the  characteristics  of  the  mediaeval  artist  was 
that  he  had  a  good  knowledge  of  the  different  materials 
that  he  employed  in  his  work.  One  cannot  help  being 
struck  by  this  fact  when  reading  some  of  their  writings 
that  have  come  down  to  us.  They  seem  to  have 
known  all  the  various  properties  of  the  different  colours 
and  materials  that  they  used.  It  is  probable  that  the 
chief  reason  for  this  was  that  it  was  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  them  to  be  able  to  prepare  the  materials  for 
use,  as  it  was  practically  impossible  to  buy  them  ready 
prepared. 

The  artist  of  to-day  can  buy  so  many  things  ready 
prepared  for  him  by  the  artists'  colourman  that  he  is 
very  liable  to  give  little  or  no  attention  to  their  composi- 
tion and  quality.  It  is  as  well,  however,  that  the 
artist  should  have  some  knowledge  of  the  materials 
that  he  uses,  so  that  he  may  be  able  to  select  the  best 
for  his  purpose. 

It  is  important  that  he  should  understand  some- 
thing, at  any  rate,  about  the  composition  of  the  various 
colours  that  he  uses,  and  that   he  should  be  able  to 

distinguish  permanent  colours  from  those  notoriously 

123 


124  ILLUMINATION 

fugitive.  Of  course,  it  must  not  be  understood  by  this 
that  it  is  necessary  for  the  artist  to  subject  all  his 
colours  to  chemical  analysis  ;  if  he  buys  his  colours 
from  any  reliable  artists'  colourman  he  can  rely  on 
the  colours  being  true  to  their  name. 

There  are,  however,  some  students  who  have  not 
the  slightest  idea  of  the  character  of  the  different 
colours  that  they  are  in  the  habit  of  using.  It  is  a 
great  pity  when  good  work  is  completely  spoiled  by 
being  executed  with  fugitive  colours  through  the 
ignorance  of  the  artist.  Good  work  should  be  as 
lasting  as  it  is  possible  to  have  it,  and  this  is  not 
practicable  if  one  is  not  certain  whether  the  colours  are 
likely  to  fade  or  change  in  any  way. 

The  following  notes  as  to  the  composition  and 
permanence  of  the  different  colours  may  be  of  service 
to  the  student. 

YELLOW   PIGMENTS 

Aureolin,  Cadmium  Yellows,  Chrome  Yellows, 
Gamboge,  Raw  Sienna,  Yellow  Ochre,  Naples  Yellow. 

Of  these  colours,  Aureolin  is  the  most  expensive, 

but  it  is  a  very  beautiful  colour,  and  has  the  advantage 

of  being  permanent.     It   is  sometimes  called   Cobalt 

Yellow ;    it  is  prepared  from  cobalt  and  potassium 

nitrites. 

The  Cadmium  Yellows  are  sulphides  of  cadmium, 

and  are  in  various  shades  from  pale  yellow  to  orange  ; 

they  are  also  permanent. 

Chrome  Yellows  are  all  chroma  tes  of  lead,  and  they 

darken  very  quickly  in  an  impure  atmosphere,  especially 


COMPOSITION   OF  COLOURS  125 

when  used  in  water-colour  painting.  These  colours 
are  very  cheap,  and,  at  the  same  time,  very  brilliant, 
but  they  should  be  avoided  in  all  cases  where  perman- 
ence is  desirable.  They  also  produce  serious  changes 
when  mixed  with  other  colours  ;  for  example,  a  green 
made  by  mixing  chrome  yellow  with  prussian  or 
antwerpblue  is  notoriously  fugitive  in  character. 

Gamboge  is  a  gum-resin  from  the  East  Indian  tree 
Garcimia  Cambogia.  It  forms  a  bright  opaque  yellow 
solution  with  water,  requiring  no  grinding  or  mixing 
in  any  way,  owing  to  its  natural  gum.  It  is  fairly 
permanent  and  works  well  in  water-colour,  but  is  not 
quite  so  satisfactory  in  body-colour  painting. 

Raw  Sienna  and  Yellow  Ochre  are  both  natural 
earths  containing  iron  oxide.  They  are  quite  per- 
manent. 

Naples  Yellow  is  generally  prepared  by  mixing 
Cadmium  Yellow  with  Zinc  White. 

RED   PIGMENTS 

Vermilion,  Rose  Madder,  Scarlet  Madder,  Alizarin 
Crimson,  Crimson  Lake,  Carmine,  Indian  Red,  Light 
Red,  Burnt  Sienna. 

Vermilion  is  one  of  the  most  important  colours  for 
the  illuminator.  It  is  prepared  from  sulphide  of 
mercury.  There  are  various  kinds,  which  are  termed 
Orange  Vermilion,  Scarlet  Vermilion,  Vermilion  Ex- 
tract, Vermilion,  etc.  Probably  that  known  simply 
as  Vermilion  is  most  useful  to  the  illuminator. 

Most  vermilions  are  manufactured  in  this  country, 

I 


126  ILLUMINATION 

but  that  known  as  Chinese  Vermilion  is  imported  from 
China. 

Although  vermilion  is  indispensable  to  the  illumina- 
tor, it  cannot  be  guaranteed  as  being  absolutely 
permanent.  Cennino  Cennini,  writing  about  this 
pigment,  says  :  "  But  remember  that  vermilion  is  not 
durable  when  exposed  to  the  air  ;  it  is  more  lasting  on 
pictures  than  on  walls,  because,  by  long  exposure  to 
the  air,  it  becomes  black  when  applied  to  walls." 

It  is  a  fact  that  vermilion  does  change  in  this  way, 
but  it  is  debatable  whether  it  is  affected  by  the  air. 
It  is  thought  by  some  that  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays 
is  a  more  likely  cause  of  change.  There  are  two  varieties 
of  mercuric  sulphide,  the  red  and  the  black  ;  un- 
fortunately the  red  is  liable  to  change  into  the  black. 
No  chemical  change  is  necessary  for  this,  as  they  are 
both  identical  from  a  chemical  standpoint.  In  the 
diffused  light  of  a  room  this  colour  seems  to  be  quite 
permanent,  but  it  is  liable  to  turn  black  suddenly  when 
exposed  to  direct  sunlight.  There  is  conclusive  proof 
that  vermilion,  when  not  placed  so  that  the  rays  of  the 
sun  come  into  direct  contact,  is  quite  permanent  by 
the  fact  that  in  the  illuminated  MSS.  produced  centuries 
ago  the  vermilion  is  still  bright. 

Most  authorities  are  of  the  opinion  that  genuine 
Chinese  vermilion  is  more  permanent  than  the  English 
variety.  There  are  two  methods  employed  at  the 
present  day  in  the  manufacture  of  this  colour — the 
wet  and  the  dry  process.  The  dry  method  is  used 
in  China  and  the  other  in  Europe.  The  wet  method 
is    more    economical,   but    it    is    generally  admitted 


COMPOSITION   OF  COLOURS  127 

that  vermilion  produced  by  the  diy  process  is  more 
permanent  than  the  other  kind.  Unfortunately  the 
Chinese  vermilion  that  is  obtainable  in  this  country  is 
often  rather  poor  in  quality. 

Rose  Madder  and  Scarlet  Madder  are  lakes  prepared 
from  the  madder  root.  These  are  very  beautiful  colours 
and  are  permanent  under  ordinary  conditions.  They 
should  not,  however,  be  exposed  to  direct  sunlight. 

Alizarin  Crimson  is  a  permanent  crimson  with  a 
coal-tar  origin. 

Crimson  Lake  and  Carmine  are  lakes  prepared  from 
cochineal ;  they  are  quite  fugitive  and  should  not  be 
employed  for  serious  work. 

Indian  Red  is  a  variety  of  iron  oxide  and  is  per- 
manent. 

Light  Red  and  Burnt  Sienna  are  prepared  by  burning 
Yellow  Ochre  and  Raw  Sienna  ;  they  are  both  quite 
permanent. 

BLUE   PIGMENTS 

Cobalt  Blue,  Cerulean  Blue,  Ultramarine,  Ultra- 
marine Ash,  French  Ultramarine,  New  Blue,  Prussian 
Blue,  Antwerp  Blue,  Cobalt.  Violet,  Purple  Madder. 

Cobalt  Blue  is  a  fine  colour  prepared  from  cobalt 
oxide  and  alumina.  This  is  quite  permanent  under 
ordinary  conditions. 

Cerulean  Blue,  made  from  cobalt  and  tin  oxides,  is 
also  a  permanent  colour. 

Genuine  Ultramarine  is  a  beautiful  permanent 
colour  obtained  by  grinding  the  lapis  lazuli. 
Cennino   Cennini,   in    his   treatise,    gives    interesting 


128  ILLUMINATION 

particulars  concerning  the  method  then  used  to  prepare 
this  colour.  Ultramarine  Ash  is  a  second  quality  of 
this  same  blue.  Unfortunately  the  great  cost  of  genuine 
ultramarine  debars  the  majority  of  artists  from  using 
this  colour.  Happily,  under  the  name  of  French 
LTltramarine,  it  is  now  made  synthetically.  By  this 
means  a  good  permanent  colour  is  produced  at  a  cheap 
rate.    New  Blue  is  a  pale  variety  of  French  Ultramarine. 

Prussian  Blue  is  ferrocyanide  of  iron.  Antwerp  Blue 
is  a  weaker  variety  of  the  same  colour  containing 
alumina.  These  colours  are  not  altogether  reliable,  as 
they  are  subject  to  change. 

Cobalt  Violet  is  a  purple  colour  made  from  cobalt, 
and  is  quite  permanent. 

Purple  Madder  is  usually  prepared  from  the  madder 
root,  and  is  permanent  under  ordinary  conditions. 
Sometimes,  however,  it  is  prepared  from  Crimson  Lake, 
in  which  case  it  is  fugitive. 

GREEN   PIGMENTS 

Chromium  Oxide,  Viridian,  Emerald  Green. 

Chromium  Oxide  is,  as  its  name  implies,  an  oxide 
of  chromium  ;  this  is  an  opaque  variety.  Viridian  is 
also  an  oxide  of  chromium,  but  is  transparent.  Both 
these  are  quite  permanent. 

Emerald  Green  is  aceto-arsenite  of  copper,  and  a 
somewhat  dangerous  colour  to  use  ;  it  is  darkened  by 
impure  air,  but  this  is  not  so  serious  as  are  its  effects 
upon  other  colours  when  mixed  with  them.  If  used  at 
all,  it  should  be  used  quite  by  itself,  as  if  it  is  mixed  with 


COMPOSITION   OF  COLOURS  129 

other  colours  it  is  sure  to  have  a  bad  effect  on  them. 
It  turns  some  colours  black  very  quickly. 

BROWN    PIGMENTS 

Raw  Umber,  Burnt  Umber,  Sepia,  Vandyke  Brown. 

Raw  Umber  is  a  natural  earth,  containing  oxide 
of  manganese  ;  it  is  quite  permanent.  Burnt  Umber 
is  the  same  colour  burnt,  by  which  it  becomes  darker 
and  richer  in  colour. 

Sepia  is  generally  prepared  from  the  ink  of  the 
cuttle-fish,  although  occasionally  a  natural  earth  is 
substituted.  Vandyke  Brown  is  also  a  natural  earth ; 
both  these  colours  are  permanent. 

BLACK   PIGMENTS 

Ivory  Black,  Lamp  Black,  Indian  Ink. 

Ivory  Black  is  made  from  ivory  and  bone  charred 
to  blackness. 

Lamp  Black  is  a  smoke-black,  being  a  finely  divided 
soot  formed  by  the  incomplete  combustion  of  hydro- 
carbons. 

Genuine  Indian  Ink  does  not  come  from  India,  as 
might  be  supposed,  but  from  China.  There  are,  how- 
ever, several  other  varieties  in  liquid  form.  It  is 
generally  admitted  that  carbon-black  forms  the  bulk  of 
all  these. 

AU  these  black  pigments  are  quite  permanent. 

WHITE   PIGMENTS 

Zinc  White,  Flake  White. 


130  ILLUMINATION 

Zinc,  or  Chinese,  White  is  an  oxide  of  zinc.  This 
pigment  is  quite  permanent  and  should  be  used  always 
when  a  lasting  white  is  needed.  Unfortunately  this 
white  does  not  photograph  its  true  value,  so  for  pro- 
cess work  it  is  best  not  to  use  this. 

Flake  White  is  prepared  from  lead  carbonate  and 
hydrate,  and  may  be  used  for  process  work  in  place  of 
zinc  white.  It,  however,  should  not  be  used  for  work 
that  is  required  to  be  lasting,  as  when  used  as  a  water- 
colour  it  soon  turns  black.  As,  however,  it  has  more 
body  than  zinc  white,  it  photographs  better.  A  white 
is  sometimes  prepared  for  process  work  from  barium 
sulphate.  This  is  permanent,  but  does  not  work  quite 
so  well  from  the  brush. 


CHAPTER  XV 

COLOURS  :  THEIR  PREPARATION  AND  USE 

It  is  practically  needless  to  say  that  the  colours  used 
for  illuminating  are  water-colours.  These  are  sold  by 
the  artists'  colourmen,  ready  prepared,  in  three  different 
forms,  viz.,  in  cakes,  pans,  and  tubes.  These  consist 
of  powder  colour  ground  with  gum  arabic,  or  Senegal 
(a  brown  variety  of  the  same  gum),  to  which  a  portion 
of  honey  and  glycerine  is  added. 

The  best  prepared  colours  are  undoubtedly  those 
sold  in  the  form  of  cakes,  as  they  are  the  purest.  The 
other  forms  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  glycerine, 
which  does  not  improve  the  colour,  but  enables  them  to 
be  kept  moist  for  quite  a  long  time — a  greater  advantage 
to  the  artists'  colouiman  than  to  the  artist. 

Tube  colours  contain  more  glycerine  than  those 
sold  in  pans.  The  great  advantage,  however,  that  tube 
colours  possess  is  their  convenience.  A  small  quantity 
of  clean  colour  can  be  squeezed  out  and  the  cap  re- 
placed on  the  tube,  thus  keeping  the  rest  of  the  colour 
free  from  dust.  The  admixture  of  so  much  glycerine 
with  the  colour,  however,  often  prevents  it  from  drying 
quite  flat  when  used  as  body  colour. 

One  word  of   warning   may  be   useful  here  :  gum 

i3i 


132  ILLUMINATION 

should  not  be  mixed  with  water-colours.  This  is  often 
recommended  in  books  on  illumination,  but  it  is  not 
only  unnecessary  but  it  entirety  spoils  the  appearance 
of  the  colour.  There  is  always  quite  sufficient  gum 
mixed  with  the  colour,  and  there  is  nothing  specially 
beautiful  about  the  shiny  appearance  caused  by  an 
excess  of  gum  in  the  colour. 

Without  a  doubt  the  best  colours  for  the  illuminator 
to  use  are  powder  colours.  They  are  mixed  with  gum 
arabic  and  water.  Care  should  be  taken  to  get  the 
right  quantity  of  gum  mixed  with  the  colour.  If  there 
is  not  sufficient  to  bind  the  colour  it  will  rub  off  when 
dry,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  there  is  too  much,  it 
will  dry  patchy,  and  if  very  much  in  excess  it  will 
present  a  shiny  appearance.  Experience  will  soon 
show  the  exact  amount  necessary. 

One  very  great  objection  that  is  often  urged  against 
the  use  of  powder  colours  is  their  inconvenience,  but 
if  these  are  prepared  in  the  manner  described  below 
they  should  not  be  more  inconvenient  to  use  than  the 
ordinary  ready-prepared  water-colours. 

For  illuminating,  where  the  work  is  required  to  be 
lasting,  none  but  permanent  colours  should  be  used  ; 
but  when  making  designs  which  are  for  temporary  use 
only  it  is  foolish  to  use  expensive  colours  like  aureolin 
and  cadmium  yellow  when  the  same  effect  can  be 
obtained  with  the  various  shades  of  chrome  yellow, 
which  is  much  cheaper,  although  notoriously  fugitive. 

It  is  best  to  buy  the  colours  ready  ground.  A  china 
slab  or  a  piece  of  plate  glass  may  be  used  to  mix  the 
colours  on,  or  the  back  of  a  large  white  plate  might 


PREPARATION  AND  USE  OF  COLOURS     133 

serve  in  lieu  of  these.  When  it  is  necessary  to  grind 
the  colour  a  muller  is  used  for  this  purpose.  (See 
Fig.  29.) 

Gum  arabic  is  prepared  in  a  very  simple  manner  for 


SUh& 

Muller, 


Fig.  29. 


mixing  with  colours.  Some  pieces  of  this  gum  are 
placed  in  a  wide-mouthed  jar  and  covered  with  cold 
water.  It  should  be  given  a  stir  occasionally,  and  the 
following  day  it  will  probably  be  dissolved.  It  may 
be  strained  through  muslin  if  necessary.  A  few  drops 
of  carbolic  acid  added  to  it  will  prevent  this  solution 


134  ILLUMINATION 

from  becoming  sour.  It  is  as  well  also  to  provide  a  loose- 
fitting  cover  for  the  jar  to  keep  dust  from  the  gum. 

For  mixing  the  colour  a  palette-knife  is  required. 
A  little  of  the  powder  colour  is  placed  on  the  slab  and 
mixed  with  the  palette-knife  to  a  stiff  paste  with 
water  and  a  little  gum.  A  glass  tube  may  be  used  to 
take  the  gum  from  the  jar.  If  this  tube  is  placed  in  the 
jar  of  gum,  and  the  finger  placed  over  the  top  of  it, 
a  small  quantity  of  gum  can  be  easily  removed  and  may 
be  dropped  on  to  the  slab  by  removing  the  ringer.  (See 
Fig.  29.)  This  is  a  much  better  method  than  dipping 
the  palette-knife  into  the  gum,  as  this  is  very  likely  to 
get  contaminated  with  the  colour  if  this  is  done. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  mix  the  colour  too  thinly  with 
water  before  adding  the  gum,  as  one  of  the  effects  of 
the  gum  is  to  make  the  colour  flow  much  easier,  and 
if  there  is  a  fair  quantity  of  colour  on  the  slab  it  is 
liable  to  flow  over  the  edges. 

After  it  has  been  well  mixed  up  with  the  palette- 
knife  it  should  be  tested  to  see  if  it  has  sufficient  gum 
in  it.  The  student  should  take  a  clean  brush  and  paint 
a  small  square  with  the  colour  on  a  piece  of  paper. 
When  this  is  quite  dry  it  is  very  easy  to  tell  if  it  has 
the  proper  quantity  of  gum  in  it.  As  mentioned 
before,  if  it  has  too  much  the  colour  will  look  patchy 
or  shiny.  To  find  out  if  there  is  enough  gum  in  it, 
take  a  small  piece  of  rough  paper  and  rub  the  patch 
of  colour  vigorously  with  it  ;  if  there  is  insufficient  gum 
to  bind  the  colour  it  will  rub  off  on  to  the  paper;  if 
there  is  too  much  gum,  more  colour  should  be  added  ; 


PREPARATION  AND  USE  OF  COLOURS     135 

while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  there  is  not  enough  a  little 
more  should  be  mixed  with  it. 

When  painting  a  fresh  square  of  colour  for  testing 
purposes  it  is  essential  that  the  brush  should  be 
thoroughly  washed  before  painting  the  new  patch. 
If  this  is  not  done  the  result  will  be  that  the  colour  will 
be  mixed  with  that  already  in  the  brush,  and  the  test 
will  not  be  a  true  one.  Another  important  thing  is 
to  see  that  the  colour  is  well  mixed  with  the  gum,  other- 
wise one  is  very  liable  to  get  one  brush  full  of  colour 
that  is  nearly  all  gum  and  another  with  insufficient 
gum  in  it. 

When  the  colour  is  well  mixed  up  with  the  right 
quantity  of  gum  it  should  be  thinned  out  with  water 
and  is  then  ready  for  use.  It  should  be  placed  in 
little  saucers,  which  may  be  obtained  from  any  artists' 
colourman.  A  small  square  of  glass  may  be  placed  over 
the  saucer  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  the  water  from 
the  colour,  as,  if  left  exposed  to  the  air,  this  will  soon 
dry  quite  hard.  If  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  colour 
moist  for  any  considerable  time,  a  small  quantity  of 
glycerine  and  honey  should  be  added  to  it.  The  colour, 
however,  does  not  work  so  well  when  used  as  body- 
colour  if  this  is  done. 

The  following  is  a  good  method  of  keeping  body- 
colour  in  a  convenient  form.  The  colour  should  be 
painted  on  large  pieces  of  glass  or  slabs  of  porcelain 
and  allowed  to  get  perfectly  dry.  It  can  then  be 
scraped  up  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powder.  An  old 
chisel-knife,  or  a  broken  palette-knife,  makes  a  good 
scraper.  This  powder  requires  only  a  little  water  to  be 


136  ILLUMINATION 

added  to  it  and  the  colour  is  ready  for  use.  It  dissolves 
very  quickly  in  water  to  form  an  easy -flowing  colour, 
much  superior  to  colour  that  has  glycerine  and  honey 
added  to  it  to  keep  it  moist.  Especially  is  this  the 
case  when  working  on  vellum.  It  dries  with  a  dull, 
velvet-like  surface  which  shows  in  strong  contrast 
to  brightly  burnished  gold.  If  the  colour,  when  scraped 
up,  is  not  very  finely  divided  it  should  be  rubbed  up, 
in  its  dry  state,  on  the  slab,  with  the  palette-knife  or 
muller,  until  it  is  quite  fine,  as  the  finer  the  powder  the 
more  quickly  will  it  dissolve. 

A  complete  set  of  colours  for  illuminating  may  be 
prepared  in  this  way  and  put  into  small  bottles  until 
required.  No  gum  should  be  added  when  using  them, 
as  each  small  grain  of  colour  has  its  own  portion 
of  gum  which  binds  it  to  the  surface  on  which  it  is 
painted. 

When  it  is  required  to  use  any  of  the  colours  pre- 
pared in  this  way,  a  small  quantity  of  the  powder  should 
be  placed  in  a  small  saucer  and  a  little  water  added. 
It  should  then  be  worked  up  with  the  finger-tip  until 
it  is  fluid  enough  to  work  well  with  the  brush. 

Colours  prepared  in  this  way  work  very  well  also 
in  the  pen,  vermilion  especially  working  very  well 
indeed.  It  is  not  advisable  to  use  a  brush  to  mix  the 
colour  up  with,  as  this  method  not  only  quickly  spoils 
a  brush,  but  also  it  does  not  mix  the  colour  up  nearly 
so  well  as  the  finger-tip. 

If  a  little  colour  is  left  in  the  saucer  after  using  it, 
it  can  easily  be  moistened  up  again  with  a  little  water. 
It  is  not,  however,  advisable  to  mix  up  much  more  than 


PREPARATION  AND  USE  OF  COLOURS     137 

is  required,  as  it  dries  rather  hard  and  requires  soaking 
some  little  time  if  a  considerable  quantity  is  left  to  dry. 
When  mixing  colours  in  this  way  it  is  as  well  to 
label  carefully  the  bottles  in  which  the  colour  is  stored. 
If  this  is  not  done,  one  is  very  liable  to  mistake  a 
fugitive  colour  for  a  permanent  one,  and  vice  versa. 
Cadmium  yellow  may  easily  be  mistaken  for  chrome 
yellow,  and  crimson  Lake  for  permanent  crimson. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

THE    GILDING    METHODS    OF   THE   MIDDLE   AGES 

The  most  casual  observer  cannot  fail  to  notice  the 
gilding  that  is  such  a  prominent  feature  of  the  MSS. 
of  the  mediaeval  period.  Brightly  burnished  gold, 
which  appears  as  if  it  had  been  laid  and  burnished  quite 
recently,  although  centuries  have  passed  since  the 
work  was  completed,  cannot  fail  to  impress  and  arouse 
one's  curiosity  as  to  the  gilding  methods  employed 
when  this  work  was  produced. 

Some  of  the  old  MSS.  that  treat  of  painting  and 
the  preparation  of  colours  give  also  some  information 
concerning  the  various  methods  of  gilding,  and  our 
knowledge  of  these  methods  is  chiefly  derived  from 
these  MSS. 

Dr.  A.  P.  Laurie  has  made  careful  examination  of 
the  different  forms  of  gilding  employed  in  illuminated 
MSS.,  and  in  his  book,  "  Pigments  and  Mediums  of  the 
Old  Masters,"  says  that  gold  was  used  in  three  distinct 
forms  :  as  gold-leaf  laid  on  the  surface,  and  in  the 
form  of  gold  paint,  prepared  by  grinding  leaf-gold  to 
powder  ;  the  other  method  seems  to  have  been  a 
paint  made  of  rounded  granules  of  gold.  He  suggests 
that  this  gold  was  probably  obtained  from  river  wash- 
ings, and  that  the  onlv  preparation  has  been  to  sift 

138 


GILDING  METHODS  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES  139 

out  the  finer  grains.  He  says,  further,  that  when  it  is 
examined  under  the  microscope  this  form  of  gold  paint 
*s  easily  distinguished  from  that  prepared  from  leaf- 
gold,  which  presents  the  appearance  of  little  particles 
of  gold  with  sharp  corners  and  edges,  while  this  shows 
rounded  granules. 

The  art  of  gold-beating  is  of  very  great  antiquity. 
Pliny,  in  his  "  Natural  History,"  states  that  one  ounce 
of  gold  was  made  into  750  leaves,  each  leaf  being  four 
ringers  square.  This  is  about  three  times  as  thick  as 
the  ordinary  gold-leaf  of  the  present  day.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  form  any  idea  as  to  when  and  where  it 
originated.  Some  think  that  it  arose  amongst  Oriental 
peoples.  It  certainly  has  been  practised  amongst 
these  since  quite  remote  periods.  Some  of  the  coffins 
of  the  Egyptian  mummies  have  gilding  on  them  evi- 
dently done  with  gold-leaf  in  a  similar  way  to  modern 
methods.  Some  of  the  books  of  gold-leaf  used  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians  are  in  existence  to-day,  there  being 
one  at  the  Louvre  in  Paris. 

Pliny  says,  "  Gold-leaf  is  laid  over  marble,  etc., 
with  white  of  egg,  on  wood  with  glue  properly  com- 
posed ;  they  call  it  leucophoron."  In  another  place 
he  states  that  leucophoron  is  composed  of  sinopia 
(a  red  earth  colour),  light  sil  (yellow  ochre),  and 
melinum  (a  white  earth).  Evidently  this  was  mixed 
with  size  to  form  a  ground  upon  which  to  lay  the 
leaf. 

The  Lucca  MS.,  of  the  eighth  century,  gives  instruc- 
tions how  to  prepare  gold  for  writing  by  reducing  the 
metal  to  a  fine  powder  to  form  a  gold  paint. 


140  ILLUMINATION 

The  following  recipe  is  from  the  "  Mappae  Clavicula," 
a  MS.  of  the  twelfth  century  :  "  If  you  wish  to  write 
in  gold,  take  powder  of  gold  and  moisten  it  with  size? 
made  from  the  very  same  parchment  on  which  you 
have  to  write  ;  and  with  the  gold  and  size  near  to  the 
fire  ;  and,  when  the  writing  shall  be  dry,  burnish  with 
a  very  smooth  stone,  or  with  the  tooth  of  a  wild  boar. 
Item,  if  then  you  wish  to  make  a  robe  or  a  picture,  you 
may  apply  gold  to  the  parchment,  as  I  have  above 
directed,  and  shade  with  ink  or  with  indigo,  and 
heighten  with  orpiment.''" 

Parchment  size  is  prepared  by  boiling  parchment  or 
vellum  cuttings  with  just  enough  water  to  cover  them 
for  about  two  hours.  The  size  is  then  poured  off  and 
sets  in  a  firm  jelly  when  quite  cold.  When  required 
for  use  a  small  portion  is  placed  in  a  jar,  which  is  put 
into  a  basin  of  hot  water,  the  size  then  quickly 
becoming  liquid. 

In  the  writings  of  Theophilus,  of  about  the  same 
period,  he  gives  a  good  deal  of  information  concerning 
the  mediaeval  methods  of  gilding.  In  Chapter  XXIV. 
he  gives  directions  for  hammering  out  gold-leaf.  The 
next  chapter,  which  is  quoted,  explains  how  the  leaf 
is  laid  on.  "  In  laying  on  gold,  take  the  clear  part  of 
the  white  of  egg,  which  is  beat  up  without  water,  and 
then  with  a  pencil  paint  lightly  over  the  place  in  which 
the  gold  is  to  be  placed,  and,  the  handle  of  the  same 
pencil  being  wetted  in  your  mouth,  touch  one  corner  of 
the  cut  leaf,  and  so  elevating  it,  lay  it  on  with  the 
greatest  quickness,  and  spread  it  even  with  a  brush. 
And  at  that  moment  you  must  beware  of  a  current  of 


GILDING  METHODS  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES   141 

air  and  refrain  from  breathing,  because  if  you  blow 
you  lose  the  leaf  and  with  difficulty  recover  it.  When 
this  is  laid  on  and  dried,  superpose  another  upon  it, 
if  you  wish,  in  the  same  manner,  and  a  third  likewise, 
if  it  is  necessary,  that  you  may  be  able  to  polish  it  more 
brightly  with  a  tooth  or  a  stone." 

Evidently  this  was  the  general  method  of  gilding, 
for  he  states  that  the  leaf  can  be  laid  in  the  same  manner 
on  a  wall  or  ceiling. 

In   Chapter   XXX.    he   describes   the   method   of 

grinding  gold  for  books.     This  is  done  by  first  filing  the 

gold  very  finely  and  then  gradually  grinding  it  until 

it  is  an  extremely  fine  powder.     In  the  next  chapter, 

which  is  entitled,  "  How  Gold  and  Silver  are  Laid  in 

Books,"  the  method  of  applying  the  gold  is  given.  This 

is   as   follows  :    "  Afterwards   take  pure   minium  and 

add  to  it  a  third  part  of  cinnabar,  grinding  it  upon  a 

stone    with    water.     Which    being    carefully    ground, 

beat  up  the  clear  of  the  white  of  an  egg,  in  summer 

with  water,  in  winter  without  water,  and  when  it  is 

clear,  put  the  minium  into  a  horn  and  pour  the  clear 

upon  it,  and  stir  it  a  little  with  a  piece  of  wood  put 

into  it,  and  with  a  pencil  fill  up  all  places  with  it  upon 

which  you  wish  to  lay  gold.     Then  place  a  little  pot 

with  glue  over  the  fire,  and  when  it  is  liquefied,  pour 

it  into  the  shell  of  gold  and  wash  it  with  it.     When  you 

have  poured  which  into  another  shell,  in  which  the 

purifying  is  kept,  again  pour  in  warm  glue,  and,  holding 

it  in  the  palm  of  the  left  hand,  stir  it  carefully  with  the 

pencil,  and  lay  it  on  where  you  wish  thick  or  thin,  so, 

however,  that  there  be  little  glue,  because,  should  it 

K 


142  ILLUMINATION 

exceed,  it  blackens  the  gold  and  does  not  receive  a 
polish.  But  after  it  has  dried,  polish  it  with  a  tooth  or 
bloodstone  carefulfy  filed  and  polished,  upon  a  smooth 
and  shining  horn  tablet.  But  should  it  happen, 
through  negligence  of  the  glue  not  being  well  cooked, 
that  the  gold  pulverises  in  rubbing,  or  rises  on  account 
of  too  great  thickness,  have  near  some  old  clear  of 
egg  beat  up  without  water,  and  directly  with  a  pencil 
paint  slightly  and  quickly  with  it  over  the  gold ; 
when  it  is  dry,  again  rub  it  with  the  tooth  or  stone. 
Lay  in  this  manner  silver,  brass,  and  copper  in  their 
place,  and  polish  them." 

In  this  early  period  this  form  of  gilding  was  certainly 
used  a  good  deal,  but  soon  after  this  the  raised  gilding, 
which  was  produced  by  laying  the  leaf  on  a  raising 
made  of  gesso,  was  in  general  use.  A  number  oi 
different  recipes  have  been  found.  Probably  the  most 
important,  however,  are  those  given  by  Cennino  Cennini 
in  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Chapter 
CLVII.  is  entitled,  "How  You  Must  do  Miniature- 
Painting  and  Put  Gold  on  Parchment."  It  is  quoted 
in  full.  "  First,  if  you  would  paint  miniatures  you 
must  draw  with  a  leaden  style  figures,  foliage,  letters,  or 
whatever  you  please,  on  parchment,  that  is  to  say  in 
books  ;  then  with  a  pen  you  must  make  the  delicate 
permanent  outline  of  what  you  have  designed.  Then 
you  must  have  a  paint  that  is  a  sort  of  gesso,  called 
asiso,  and  it  is  made  in  this  manner  ;  namely,  a  little 
gesso  sot  tile  and  a  little  biacca,  never  more  of  this  than 
equals  a  third  part  of  the  gesso  ;  then  take  a  little 
candy,  less  than  the  biacca  ;    grind  these  ingredients 


GILDING  METHODS  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES  143 

very  finely  with  elear  water,  collect  them  together, 
and  let  them  dry  without  sun.  When  you  wish  to  use 
some  to  put  on  gold,  cut  off  a  piece  as  large  as  you  have 
need  of,  and  temper  it  with  the  white  of  an  egg,  well 
beaten,  as  I  have  taught  you.  Temper  this  mixture 
with  it  ;  let  it  drjr ;  then  take  your  gold,  and  either 
breathing  on  it  or  not,  as  you  please,  you  can  put  it 
on  ;  and  the  gold  being  laid  on,  take  the  tooth  or  burnish- 
ing-stone  and  burnish  it,  but  hold  under  the  parch- 
ment a  firm  tablet  of  good  wood,  very  smooth.  And 
you  must  know  that  you  may  write  letters  with  a  pen 
and  this  asiso,  or  lay  a  ground  of  it,  or  whatever  you 
please — it  is  most  excellent.  But  before  you  lay  the 
gold  on  it,  see  whether  it  is  needful  to  scrape  or  level 
it  with  the  point  of  a  knife,  or  clean  it  in  any  w7ay,  for 
your  brush  sometimes  puts  more  on  in  one  place  than 
in  another.     Always  beware  of  this." 

The  next  chapter  is  also  quoted,  as  it  gives  another 
method  of  laying  gold  on  parchment.  "  If  you  would 
like  another  kind  of  asiso — but  this  is  not  so  good,  but 
may  be  used  for  putting  on  gold  grounds,  though  not 
to  w?rite  with — take  gesso  sottile,  and  a  third  part 
biacca,  a  fourth  part  Armenian  bole,  with  a  little 
sugar  ;  grind  all  these  very  finely  with  the  white  of 
an  egg  ;  lay  on  the  ground  in  the  usual  manner,  and 
let  it  dry  ;  then  with  the  point  of  a  knife  scrape  and 
clean  the  gesso.  Put  the  previously  mentioned  tablet 
under  the  parchment,  or  a  very  flat  stone,  and  burnish 
it  ;  and  should  it  by  chance  not  burnish  well  when  you 
put  on  the  gold,  wet  the  gesso  with  clean  water  with 
a  small  minever  brush,  and  when  it  is  dry  burnish  it." 


144  ILLUMINATION 

Gesso  sottile  was  plaster  of  Paris  that  had  been 
thoroughly  slaked  by  long  soaking  in  water  so  that  it 
had  lost  all  its  setting  properties.  As  mentioned  in  a 
previous  chapter,  biacca  was  white  lead.  The  white 
of  egg  is  prepared  by  beating  it  thoroughly  to  a  thick 
froth  and  letting  it  stand  one  night  to  clear  itself. 
Armenian  bole  is  a  red  earth  colour  which  seems  to 
have  been  used  a  great  deal  to  give  colour  to  the  ground 
for  gilding.  In  some  of  the  MSS.  where  the  gold  has 
been  slightly  rubbed  off,  the  red  colour  of  the  raising 
preparation  plainly  indicates  that  is  one  of  the  in- 
gredients used. 

In  Chapter  CLX.  instructions  are  given  on  "  How  to 
Grind  Gold  and  Silver,  and  How  to  Temper  Them  to 
Make  Foliage  and  Embellishments."  Evidently  in 
this  case  the  gold  was  prepared  by  grinding  the  leaf- 
gold — not,  as  was  the  case  in  the  earlier  descriptions,  by 
first  filing  the  metal  and  gradually  reducing  it  to  a  fine 
powder. 

The  powder  gold  was,  however,  generally  used  only 
for  painting  in  fine  gold  lines  and  heightening  miniatures, 
although  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century 
matt  gold  grounds  were  often  used  as  borders  round 
miniatures,  etc. 

The  raised  gilding  was,  however,  used  more  often, 
and  the  various  recipes  given  in  the  different  MSS. 
are  generally  very  similar  to  those  given  by  Cennino. 
Sometimes  chalk  or  pipe-clay  is  used  instead  of  gesso, 
and  occasionally  parchment  size  or  fish-glue  is  re- 
commended as  a  medium  for  mixing  it  with. 

^Endeavouring  to  work  from  these  recipes  is  no  easy 


GILDING  METHODS  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES  145 

matter,  and  the  student  is  not  advised  to  waste  too 
much  time  in  experimenting  in  this  direction.  Al- 
though there  is  a  certain  amount  of  fascination  in 
trying  the  various  preparations  and  methods,  there  is 
so  much  that  is  important  that  should  claim  the  atten- 
tion of  the  student  that  it  is  hardly  profitable  for  him 
to  spend  a  lot  of  time  trying  to  work  from  these  old 
formulas  when  it  might  be  better  employed. 

One  cannot  help  being  interested,  however,  in 
these  old  recipes  and  directions  for  applying  gold  to 
vellum. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

THE   USE   OF   GOLD 

Gilding,  in  illuminated  work,  is  done  with  either  gold- 
leaf  or  shell  gold.  Gold-leaf  is  the  metal  that  has 
been  beaten  out  into  thin  sheets,  and  shell  gold  the 
same  ground  up  and  mixed  with  gum  and  honey. 
Shell  gold  is  so  called  on  account  of  the  fact  that  it  is 
sold  in  small  shells  ready  for  use. 

The  student  is  especially  warned  against  using  any 
of  the  varieties  of  gold  paint  for  work  that  is  desired 
to  be  permanent.  These  are  mixed  up  with  powdered 
bronze,  and,  in  course  of  time,  will  turn  black. 

Shell  gold  is  painted  on  in  the  same  way  that  other 
colours  are.  A  small  brush  should  be  used,  so  as  not 
to  waste  any  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  It  is 
also  essential  that  quite  clean  water  should  be  used, 
to  ensure  the  gold  being  as  bright  as  possible,  as  if 
the  water  is  contaminated  with  colour  it  will  dull  the 
gold  when  mixed  with  it.  The  great  disadvantages  of 
shell  gold  are  lack  of  brilliance  and  also  the  expense. 
It  is,  however,  very  useful  for  putting  in  very  fine  lines, 
which  are  difficult  when  using  gold-leaf. 

The  use  of  gold-leaf  for  gilding  purposes  has  been 
known  since  quite  an  early  period.     Some  of  the  early 

manuscripts  were  written  with  gold  and  silver  letters 

146 


THE  USE  OF  GOLD  147 

on  purple  vellum.  Silver-leaf  is  prepared  in  a  similar 
manner  to  gold-leaf  ;  unfortunately,  however,  it 
quickly  turns  black  when  exposed  to  the  air.  The 
best  substitute  for  silver-leaf  is  undoubtedly  platinum, 
although  it  is  very  expensive.  Aluminium  leaf  is 
sometimes  used,  but  it  is  rather  too  thick  for  fine  work. 
Sometimes  aluminium  paint  is  used  where  silver  work 
is  required.  This,  however,  has  the  same  objection  as 
shell  gold  in  lacking  brilliance. 

Without  a  doubt  the  use  of  leaf,  raised  and  burnished, 
is  the  ideal  method  of  gilding.  If  the  student  examines 
any  of  the  old  MSS.  of  the  best  periods  he  is  bound  to 
be  struck  with  the  brilliance  of  the  raised  gold,  and  he 
will  notice  how  supeiior  are  the  results  to  any  produced 
by  means  of  gold  paint.  Gold-leaf  gilding,  even  if  it 
is  unburnished,  is  infinitely  more  brilliant  than  either 
gold  paint  or  shell  gold.  Some  difficulty  may  at  first 
be  experienced  in  handling  the  leaf,  as,  being  so  thin, 
it  has  an  unpleasant  habit  of  blowing  about.  It  is 
sold  in  books  containing  twenty-five  leaves.  It  is 
best  to  get  that  known  as  "  double  fine  gold,"  specially 
prepared  for  illuminating.  For  large  masses  of  gold, 
a  thicker  leaf  may  be  used,  known  as  "  quadruple." 

The  student  should  be  careful  to  use  only  the  best 
gold-leaf.  Some  of  the  cheap  foreign  leaf  is  very  poor 
in  quality.  He  should  be  careful  also  to  avoid  the 
leaf  known  as  "  Dutch  metal,"  which  is  not  gold  at  all. 

A  gilder's  cushion  should  be  obtained  with  a  knife 
and  tip.  (See  Fig.  30.)  The  cushion  is  generally  about 
nine  inches  by  six  in  size,  and  is  made  by  stretching  a 
piece  of  soft  leather  over  a  piece  of  board  slightly 


148 


ILLUMINATION 


padded.  A  piece  of  parchment  is  fastened  on  one  end; 
which  acts  as  a  shield  to  prevent  currents  of  air  from 
blowing  the  leaf  about.  The  student  should  be  ex- 
tremely careful  to  prevent  touching  the  surface  of  the 
cushion  with  his  fingers,  as,  if  it  becomes  greasy  in  the 


Gilder's 


Gilder's  Tip 




Itf  UrtlHlMllt|M|i|/||tflMI( 


tuu!>*iJ3*csa"kViMWMtP*''****">\''*»\\\\  u  tlA-  WlHH  mi  —  in"-- 


J^cfatc  Bitrnishicr . 


Ccildcr's  IZmFc 


Camel  Hccir  Mop 


Fig.  30. 


slightest  degree,  he  will  experience  trouble  through  the 
leaf  sticking  to  it. 

The  best  way  for  the  beginner  to  learn  how  to 
handle  the  gold-leaf  is  to  get  an  experienced  gilder  to 
show  him  how  to  use  the  cushion.     If  this  is  not 


THE  USE  OF  GOLD  149 

possible  he  ought,  by  carefully  following  the  directions 
given  here,  to  be  able  to  manage  the  leaf  after  a  little 
practice. 

The  best  way  is  to  take  the  book  of  gold-leaf  and 
open  it  very  carefully.  It  is  then  turned  over 
so  that  the  leaf  rests  on  the  cushion.  The  back  of  the 
book  is  then  gently  tapped  with  the  finger-tips  ;  if 
it  is  then  carefully  lifted  up  the  leaf  will  be  found 
lying  upon  the  surface  of  the  cushion.  If  it  is  not 
lying  quite  flat  and  even,  it  may  easily  be  smoothed 
by  blowing  gently  on  the  centre  of  it.  It  is  as  well, 
however,  not  to  be  too  vigorous,  or  the  result  may  be 
to  crumple  the  leaf  up  worse  than  before. 

The  student  should  be  careful  not  to  touch  the 
leaf  with  his  fingers,  otherwise  it  will  stick  to  them  and 
the  whole  leaf  will  probably  be  spoiled.  He  should 
also  avoid  breathing  upon  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  or  it 
will  probably  roll  up  in  a  hopeless  tangle,  or  else  go 
floating  off  into  the  air,  as  the  slightest  puff  of  wind 
tends  to  do  this. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  that  it  is  not 
wise  to  attempt  handling  gold-leaf  for  the  first  time 
with  the  doors  and  windows  open,  as  the  slightest 
draught  will  carry  the  leaf  with  it. 

The  gilder's  knife  must  not  be  sharpened,  as,  if 
this  is  done,  the  result  will  be  that  instead  of  cutting 
the  leaf  it  will  probably  tear  it  and  cut  the  cushion. 
One  important  thing  to  remember  is  that  the  fingers 
should  be  kept  from  touching  the  blade,  otherwise  the 
leaf  will  stick  to  it  owing  to  the  slight  amount  of  grease 
left  on  it.     Also  if  the  blade  is  allowed  to  get  rusty  it 


150  ILLUMINATION 

is  liable  to  tear  the  leaf  instead  of  cutting  it  properly. 
The  knife  should  be  kept  clean,  and  the  edge  should 
occasionally  be  burnished  with  the  back  of  a  pen-knife, 
or  something  similar,  to  remove  any  roughness  that 
may  prevent  it  from  giving  a  clean  cut.  If  it  is  found 
that  the  leaf  sticks  to  the  blade  of  the  knife,  it  is  be- 
cause there  is  a  slight  amount  of  grea.se  on  it ;  this  may 
be  removed  by  rubbing  the  knife  on  a  board  with  a 
little  powdered  bath  brick. 

The  leaf  is  cut  by  placing  the  knife  carefully  down 
on  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  moving  it  backwards 
and  forwards  with  a  sawing  movement.  The  knife 
should  be  pressed  down  firmly  on  the  cushion  when 
cutting,  and  great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  rumple 
the  leaf  in  so  doing. 

It  is  as  well  not  to  endeavour  to  be  too  economical 
when  cutting  the  leaf  up.  A  piece  of  leaf  should  be 
cut  large  enough  to  cover  the  part  that  it  is  required 
to  gild.  If  the  student  tries  to  be  too  exact  in  cutting, 
he  is  very  liable  to  cut  the  piece  too  small,  and  then 
other  pieces  have  to  be  cut  to  patch  the  parts  not 
covered  with  the  leaf.  When  this  is  the  case,  apart 
from  the  extra  time  taken  up,  it  is  false  economy,  as 
more  leaf  is  required  than  if  a  slightly  larger  piece  was 
cut  at  first. 

After  the  leaf  is  cut,  it  is  conveyed  from  the  cushion 
to  the  work  by  means  of  the  gilder's  tip.  (See  Fig.  30.) 
This  is  a  kind  of  brush  made  by  fixing  a  thin  layer  of 
hair  between  two  pieces  of  card,  which  are  pasted  or 
glued  together.  This  tip  is  used  by  first  rubbing  it 
on  the  skin  or  hair,  and  then  placing  it  on  the  piece  of 


THE   USE   OF  GOLD  151 

leaf,  which  will  then  adhere  to  it.  It  can  then  be  carried 
and  placed  in  position  where  it  is  needed.  The  reason 
that  the  gold  adheres  to  the  tip  is  because  by  rubbing 
it  on  the  skin  or  hair  the  tip  becomes  slightly  greasy 
and  attracts  the  leaf. 

If  any  leaf  is  left  on  the  cushion  after  finishing  the 
gilding,  it  should  be  carefully  replaced  in  the  book. 
This  may  be  done  by  putting  the  top  of  the  blade  of 
the  knife  down  flat  on  the  cushion  and  pushing  it 
under  the  centre  of  the  leaf.  By  this  means  the  leaf 
may  be  lifted  and  carried  to  the  book.  The  tip  should 
not  be  used  for  this  purpose,  or  some  difficulty  may  be 
experienced  in  inducing  the  leaf  to  leave  this  for  the 
book.  When  pushing  the  knife  under  the  leaf,  how- 
ever, it  should  be  pressed  firmly  on  the  cushion,  other- 
wise the  result  will  be  to  crumple  the  leaf  and  spoil  it. 

For  dusting  the  loose  leaf  away  after  gilding,  a 
large  camel-hair  mop  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  30 
is  useful. 

For  burnishing  the  gold,  an  agate  burnisher  is 
required.     The  best  shape  is  shown  in  Fig.  30. 

For  commercial  work  it  is  hardly  worth  while 
using  gold-leaf,  and  bronze  powder  is  recommended 
instead.  A  method  of  using  this  will  be  explained 
later  when  dealing  with  commercial  work. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

ILLUMINATION   WITH    GOLD   AND   COLOURS 

The  best  material  for  the  illuminator  to  work  upon  is 
undoubtedly  vellum.  No  paper  has  ever  been  made  that 
is  equal  to  it.  The  chief  drawback  that  this  material 
has  is,  of  course,  the  expense.  Parchment  is  cheaper, 
but  not  nearly  so  nice. 

In  selecting  vellum  for  illuminating,  the  ordinary 
thick  kind,  generally  known  as  illuminators'  vellum, 
is  to  be  avoided.  This  presents  too  much  the  appear- 
ance of  shiny  cardboard,  the  surface  being  much  too 
hard  and  horny.  This  kind  is  prepared  calf-skin,  and 
it  is  most  objectionable  to  work  upon.  A  very  fine 
vellum,  known  as  "  Roman  Vellum  " — probably  pre- 
pared lamb-skin — has  an  ideal  writing  surface.  It  is 
perhaps  best  to  get  a  slightly  heavier  vellum  if  it  is 
intended  to  cover  it  with  a  lot  of  heavy  work. 

A  very  curious  statement  has  found  its  way  into  a 

number  of  books  on  illumination  to  the  effect  that  it  is 

impossible   to  remove   pencil-marks  from  the  surface 

of  vellum.     It  has  been  stated  that  all  attempts  to 

remove   a   pencil-mark  with    rubber  or   bread  result 

only   in   producing   a   greasy   smudge.     The   present 

writer  has  worked  on  a  considerable  quantity  of  vellum, 

but  he  has  never  come  across  any  from  which  he  has 

i5? 


ILLUMINATION  WITH  GOLD  AND  COLOURS  153 

experienced  any  difficulty  in  removing  pencil-marks. 
Of  course  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  a  very  soft  pencil, 
such  as  a  4  or  6B,  very  freely  on  a  piece  of  vellum, 
especially  if  it  is  at  all  inclined  to  be  greasy.  The  use 
of  carbon-paper  is  often  recommended  for  transferring 
a  design  to  vellum,  but,  generally  speaking,  the  use  of 
this  material  is  not  desirable.  It  is  generally  somewhat 
greasy,  and  it  certainly  is  difficult  to  remove  these 
marks  from  the  surface  of  the  vellum.  The  best  way 
is  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  working  straight  away  on  to 
the  vellum.  Work  that  is  carried  out  in  this  manner  is 
generally  characterised  as  having  more  vitality  and 
displaying  more  freedom  than  when  it  is  traced  off  from 
another  di  awing. 

Some  of  the  fine  hand-made  papers,  specially 
prepared  for  writing  and  illuminating,  make  excellent 
substitutes  for  vellum,  although,  of  course,  paper  is 
never  as  durable  as  vellum.  Cold  tea  makes  a  very 
good  and  quite  harmless  stain  with  which  the  paper 
can  be  tinted  a  similar  shade  to  vellum.  When  tint- 
ing the  paper  with  tea,  it  is  best  not  to  use  too  strong 
tea  for  this  purpose,  otherwise  the  result  may  not  be 
altogether  satisfactory.  The  paper  should  be  carefully 
fastened  to  a  board  with  drawing-pins.  A  broad, 
flat  camel-hair  brush  is  usefuHor  washing  the  tint  on, 
care  being  taken  to  get  this  quite  even.  If  the  paper 
is  needed  to  be  used  for  a  MS.  book,  both  sides  should 
be  tinted,  but  this  is  hardly  necessary  if  one  side  only 
of  the  paper  is  to  be  worked  upon. 

When  using  paper  for  large,  important  work  it  is 
best  to  stretch  it  before  commencing  to  work  upon  it. 


154  ILLUMINATION 

This  is  done  by  damping  it  freely  until  it  becomes  quite 
limp.  The  margin  is  then  coated  with  paste  for  about 
half  an  inch  all  round.  It  is  then  stuck  on  to  the 
drawing-board  by  means  of  this  pasted  margin  while 
the  paper  is  still  wet.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the 
pasted  margin  dries  hard  before  the  rest  of  the  paper 
begins  to  dry,  otherwise,  when  the  paper  starts  to 
contract,  it  will  come  away  from  the  board.  This  is 
obviated  by  re-damping  the  centre  of  the  paper,  so 
that  the  margin  has  a  chance  of  becoming  firmly 
attached  to  the  board  before  the  paper  begins  to 
pull. 

The  beginner  is  not  advised  to  attempt  to  stretch 
vellum  in  this  manner.  It  requires  considerable  ex- 
perience to  stretch  vellum  satisfactorily,  and  it  is 
quite  easy  to  spoil  a  large  sheet  in  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  at  stretching  it.  The  best  way  is  to  fasten  it 
to  the  drawing-board  with  plenty  of  drawing-pins. 
If  the  sheet  of  vellum  is  placed  in  a  damp  place  for 
some  little  time  before  pinning  it  on  to  the  drawing- 
board,  or  placed  for  a  short  time  between  damp  blotting- 
paper,  it  will,  if  stretched  tightly  on  the  board  with  the 
drawing-pins  while  it  is  slightly  damp,  be  found  to  be 
stretched  quite  well  enough  for  all  practical  purposes 
when  dry. 

Perhaps  it  would  be  as  well  here  to  have  a  word  to 
say  about  brushes.  The  best  kind  for  the  illuminator 
are  red  sables.  These  are  made  both  in  quills  and 
with  metal  ferrules.  Some  prefer  one  kind  and  some 
the  other.  Two  or  three  of  the  smaller  sizes  should 
be  selected,  with  a  larger  one  for  bolder  work.     The 


ILLUMINATION  WITH  GOLD  AND  COLOURS  155 

student  will  soon  find  out  which  size  is  most  con- 
venient for  him  to  use.  The  present  writer  uses  a  No. 
1,  metal  ferrule,  for  most  of  his  work,  using  a  larger 
brush  for  filling  in  broad  masses  of  colour  and  larger 
work.  To  ensure  getting  the  best  service  out  of  brushes 
they  should  be  taken  care  of.  After  using,  they  should 
be  carefully  washed  by  shaking  vigorously  in  a  jar 
of  clean  water.  Brushes  soon  spoil  if  they  are  put 
away  dirt}'.  The  colour  gets  between  the  hairs  and 
prevents  the  brush  from  coming  to  a  point.  If  the 
colour  dries  in  the  brush  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  it 
quite  clean  afterwards.  One  would  think  it  was 
hardly  necessary  to  state  that  brushes  should  not  be 
placed  so  that  they  are  resting  on  their  points,  but 
they  are  often  left  in  this  way  by  careless  people. 
When  a  brush  has  been  used  for  Indian  ink  it  will  be 
found  that  washing  in  ordinary  water  will  be  insuffi- 
cient to  clean  it.  In  this  case  soap  and  water  may  be 
used,  carefully  washing  the  soap  out  afterwards  with 
clean  water. 

Vellum  is  generally  pounced  before  working  upon 
it.  A  very  good  pounce  may  be  prepared  by  mixing 
equal  parts,  by  measure,  of  pumice  powder  and  french 
chalk.  When  pouncing  vellum  it  should  be  spread 
out  flat  on  a  board  covered  with  a  sheet  of  clean  paper. 
The  pounce  is  sprinkled  over  it  and  rubbed  in  with  the 
palm  of  the  hand.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  pounce 
too  long,  or  the  vellum  will  be  roughened  and  spoiled. 
After  the  vellum  has  been  well  pounced,  the  pounce 
is  shaken  off  and  the  vellum  carefully  dusted  with  a 
soft  handkerchief. 


156  ILLUMINATION 

If  the  surface  of  vellum  is  examined  very  care- 
fully it  will  be  noticed  that  one  side  is  different  from 
the  other.  The  side  which  was  originally  the  hair 
side  of  the  skin  is  rougher  than  the  flesh  side.  The 
smoother  side  is  nicer  for  writing  upon,  although,  when 
using  one  side  of  the  vellum  only,  it  is  not  advisable 
for  the  beginner  to  use  the  flesh  side,  as  it  is  so  difficult 
to  make  an  erasure  on  this  side,  without  spoiling  the 
skin.  Of  course,  it  is  much  better  to  endeavour  to 
avoid  making  mistakes,  but  still  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  prevent  them  occasionally.  When  it  is  necessary 
to  make  an  erasure  a  very  sharp  knife  should  be  em- 
ployed with  the  least  possible  pressure.  For  erasures 
on  the  flesh  side  of  the  vellum  the  kind  of  rubber 
known  as  kneaded  rubber  is  very  useful.  This  erases 
very  slowly,  but  at  the  same  time  very  efficiently. 
When  using  a  knife  for  erasures  on  vellum  it  is  essential 
that  it  should  be  extremely  sharp  and  that  scarcely 
any  pressure  be  put  on  it.  It  is  best,  however,  to 
avoid  the  use  of  the  knife  on  the  flesh  side  of  vellum. 

A  simple  but  effective  style  of  illumination  is 
shown  in  Fig.  31.  This  is  based,  to  a  large  extent,  on 
pen-work.  The  block  of  the  initial  P  may  be  blue, 
with  the  centre  red.  The  initial  itself  is  of  raised  gold, 
as  also  are  the  buds  and  centres  of  the  small  flowers 
in  the  surrounding  decoration.  The  fine  scroll- 
work may  be  in  black  or  brown,  the  decoration  on  the 
initial  being  white. 

After  the  lettering  is  completed,  the  decoration 
should  be  drawn  in  carefully  with  pencil.  The  scroll- 
work may  then  be  drawn  in  with  the  pen.     The  page 


ILLUMINATION  WITH  GOLD  AND  COLOURS  157 

should  then  be  carefully  cleaned  with  a  piece  of  soft 
rubber,  removing  all  pencil-marks  that  will  not  be 
covered  with  colour.  The  next  step  is  the  gilding. 
Various  preparations  are  sold  by  different  artists' 
colourmen  for  this  purpose.  When  buying  gold-size, 
however,  the  student  should  see  that  he  gets  the  kind 


A^6R  nosseR 

crui  cs  in  coelisrr 
_5anctiFTcctiir  no- 
roen  tuum  .  Advcmaf  j^^Z^y? 
rccfnum  tuum .  Fiatr  vo- 


0©@- 


Fig.  31. 


specially  prepared  for  illuminating.  There  are  many 
varieties  on  the  market,  some  of  which  are  useless  on 
vellum.  For  example,  it  would  be  foolish  to  try  and 
gild  on  vellum  with  oil  gold-size  or  japanners'  gold- 
size.  Also  the  different  kinds  of  water  gold-size,  used 
by  decorators  and  picture-frame  gilders,  are  dimcult 
to  use  on  vellum,  as  the  gold  is  laid  by  flooding  the 
surface  of  the  size  with  water  and  then  applying  the 


158  ILLUMINATION 

leaf.  The  result  of  this  is  to  cockle  the  vellum  in  a 
most  unpleasant  fashion. 

Most  dealers  sell  raising  preparation  and  water 
gold-size.  The  raising  preparation  is  generally  sold 
in  two  distinct  forms  by  different  makers,  one  in  the 
form  of  a  thick  paint  and  the  other  a  thick  jelly,  which 
requires  heating  to  liquefy  ready  for  use.  The  former 
kind  will  be  found  the  most  satisfactory. 

A  small  ichneumon  brush  may  be  used  for  applying 
the  raising  preparation.  Before  filling  in  the  parts 
that  it  is  desired  to  raise  it  is  not  a  bad  plan  to  roughen 
the  surface  of  the  vellum  slightly  in  these  parts.  This 
will  help  to  prevent  the  raising  from  scaling  off  when 
it  dries. 

Difficulty  is  often  experienced  through  air-bubbles 
in  the  raising  preparation.  In  drying,  of  course,  these 
show  as  tiny  holes.  In  this  case  prevention  is  better 
than  cure.  These  bubbles  are  generally  introduced 
into  the  preparation  by  means  of  the  brush.  The 
brush  being  full  of  air  is  used  to  stir  the  preparation, 
and  the  air  leaves  the  brush  in  the  form  of  bubbles, 
which  mix  with  the  raising  preparation.  The  best 
way  to  use  the  raising  preparation  is  to  take  a  small 
quantity  out  of  the  bottle  and  place  it  in  a  small 
saucer.  It  should  then  be  carefully  worked  up  with 
the  finger-tip  with  a  little  water  until  it  is  about  the 
consistency  of  cream.  It  is  much  better  to  use  the 
finger-tip  to  mix  it  up  with  rather  than  a  brush. 
Using  a  brush  for  this  purpose  is  a  fruitful  source  of 
air-bubbles,  besides  spoiling  the  brush.  Before  using 
the  brush  to  lay  on  the  preparation  with  it  should  be 


ILLUMINATION  WITH  GOLD  AND  COLOURS  159 

shaken  vigorously  in  water  and  squeezed  out,  thus 
displacing  the  air  and  preventing  the  formation  of 
bubbles.  All  the  parts  that  it  is  desired  to  gild  should 
be  given  a  fairly  substantial  coating.  It  should  be 
almost  dropped  from  the  brush.  It  is  not  desirable 
to  raise  it  too  high,  or  the  effect  will  be  somewhat 
tawdry.  The  student  should  use  the  work  of  the 
mediaeval  artist  as  his  guide  in  this  direction.  When 
this  is  all  filled  in,  the  work  is  placed  in  a  room  free 
from  dust  lor  the  raising  to  dry  firm  and  hard.  The 
surface  is  then  scraped  carefully  with  a  knife  until  it 
is  quite  smooth,  all  little  irregularities  being  removed. 

It  is  then  given  a  coat  of  water  gold-size,  and  when 
this  appears  dry  on  the  surface  it  is  breathed  upon 
until  it  becomes  tacky.  The  leaf  is  then  cut  to  size 
and  laid  on  at  once,  pressed  down  with  cotton-wool 
and  left  to  dry.  The  superfluous  gold  is  then  brushed 
away  with  a  camel-hair  mop.  On  the  following  day  it 
may  be  burnished.  If  the  burnisher  does  not  work 
freely  on  the  surface,  its  action  may  be  facilitated  by 
rubbing  the  surface  of  the  gold  with  a  soft  cloth  that 
has  been  slightly  smeared  with  beeswax. 

When  using  the  water  gold-size  it  is  most  important 
that  this  should  be  kept  free  from  dust,  and  especially 
small  hairs  and  pieces  of  fluff  that  often  float  about  in 
the  air.  It  is  impossible  to  gild  successfully  if  the 
size  is  full  of  these.  After  painting  on  the  size  it 
should  not  be  allowed  to  get  thoroughly  dry  before 
laying  the  leaf — it  should  only  appear  dry  on  the  sur- 
face. If  it  is  allowed  to  get  properly  dry  it  will  be  next 
to  impossible  to  make  it  tacky  by  breathing  upon  it. 


i6o  ILLUMINATION 

It  is  just  possible  that  after  the  gilding  has  been 
done  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  gold-leaf  has  adhered 
to  the  surface  of  the  vellum  in  parts  where  it  was  not 
intended.  Brushing  the  surface  with  the  camel-hair 
mop  is  not  sufficient  to  remove  this.  It,  however, 
can  generally  be  cleaned  by  means  of  kneaded  rubber. 
There  is  no  need  to  use  any  friction  ;  if  it  is  pressed  on 
the  parts  and  lifted  again  it  will  pick  up  the  leaf  from 
the  vellum.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  to  avoid 
touching  the  surface  of  the  raised  gold,  as  it  is  very 
liable  to  spoil  the  appearance  of  it. 

After  the  gilding  is  completed,  the  colouring  should 
be  proceeded  with.  The  large  masses  of  colour  are 
laid  in  first,  then  the  white  lining  on  the  colour,  and 
finally  the  outline.  If  the  surface  of  the  vellum  is  at 
all  inclined  to  be  greasy  it  may  be  advisable  to  use  a 
little  oxgall  with  the  colour. 

The  various  other  suggestions  shown  in  Fig.  31 
practically  explain  themselves  ;  (b)  and  (c)  are  different 
methods  of  spacing  the  decoration.  Two  more  initials 
are  shown,  also  the  construction  of  the  decoration  and 
other  suggestive  details. 


inrunnens 


X  ■" 


g 


6 US  ►£■  QUI 

hmncmce  substantive  diq-    ^ 
mtatcm  mirabtlitcr  conctt-  t 
ciisti,  et  tnt rabiUus  refbr- 
masti;  da  nobis  per  HujuS 
1  Aauct  et  Vint  muster'tam, 
etas  div'tnttatis  esse  consortes  ,  cmi     .^ 
Humanitatis  nostroz  fieri  dignatus 
est  particeps,  Jesus  Christus,  Films 
tuus,  Dominus  noster:  a/ui  tecum  vi- 
vi  t  et  reanat  in  anitatc  Sp'trttus  Scmc~ 
ti  Ueus,  -per  omnia  soecaXa  sdecaXo-  ^ 
ram.     ACOGH . 


AVABO   inter  innceentes 
manus  nveas :  et  circumdabo 
oXtarc  tuum,  Domine. 
Ut  audiam  voccm  Utudis.  ctr 
enarrem  umversa  mirab'tiia  tua. 
Oominc,  dilcKi  decorexn  domus 
tact,  et  locum  nafeitationis  cjterioztuctr 
Vie  pcrdascum  impiis,  0eus,cnimar» 
meam }  eV  cam  sriris  sanguinum  vitam 
me&m. 

\n  quorum  manibas  i  maui  totes  sunt"; 
de%zera  coram  rcpleta  est  maneribus. 
go  autem  in  itmoccntia  meet  inarcssus 
*m:  redime  mefet  miserere  met. 


<fc- 


Sum: 

Pes  incus  stetit  in  directo:  in  eccSesns 

benedicam  te  Oomine. 

Gloria  Patri ,  Ccc. 


Stinzu  Rxmsuwtk, . 


Illuminated  Altar  Tablet. 


[Facing  p.  16! 


CHAPTER   XIX 

THE    FURTHER   DEVELOPMENT   OF   ILLUMINATION 

The  style  of  decoration  suggested  in  the  previous 
chapter  was  based,  to  a  large  extent,  on  pen- work. 
The  examples  indicated  in  Fig.  32  show  a  further 
development,  in  which  brush-work  plays  a  more 
prominent  part. 

A  suggestion  for  an  illuminated  version  of  the 
Twenty-third  Psalm  is  shown  in  (d).  The  decoration 
here  may  appear  somewhat  stiff,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
show  in  black  and  white  the  effect  that  colour  gives. 
This  simple  and  somewhat  severe  type  of  decoration 
is,  however,  much  easier  for  the  beginner  than  the  freer 
kind  of  ornament. 

It  is  rather  difficult  to  suggest  in  writing  the  exact 
colouring,  as  so  much  depends  on  the  various  shades 
used  to  form  the  general  colour  scheme.  Possibly 
the  following  notes  may  be  useful  to  the  student  as 
indicating  roughly  the  colours  that  may  be  used. 

The  writing  is  in  black  with  the  capital  letters  in 

red.     The  background  of  the  initial  and  border,  viz., 

the  parts  indicated  by  horizontal  shading,  should  be 

blue.     This  colour  should  be  neither  too  dark  nor  too 

light,  also  it  should  not  tend  towards  either  purple  or 

161 


l62 


ILLUMINATION 


green.  The  student  should  take  special  note  of  the 
blues  used  by  the  mediaeval  artists.  The  large  initial 
T  should  be  painted  in  a  warm  shade  ol  red,  not  quite  so 
vivid  as  vermilion,  nor  yet  a  cool  crimson.  The  centre 
of  this  initial  and  also  the  centres  of  the  blossoms,  with 
the  background  of  the  small  circles  formed  by  the 


Fig.  32. 


stems,  are  of  raised  burnished  gold,  as  also  are  the 
small  buds  in  the  line  work.  The  stems  should  be 
painted  in  a  neutral  tint  and  may  be  heightened  up  in 
places  with  touches  of  clean  bright  colour.  The  leaves 
may  be  green  shaded  with  a  lighter  tint  of  the  same 
colour.  The  flowers  might  be  a  pale  creamy  tint 
with  the  centres  shaded  with  orange.  The  scroll-work 
on  the  colour  may  be  painted  either  in  white  or  in  a 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ILLUMINATION      163 

lighter  tint  of  the  background  colour  upon  which  it  is 
painted.  The  initial  T  may  be  treated  in  this  way,  and 
also  shaded  with  a  darker  red. 

In  (e)  an  arrangement  is  shown  for  a  page  with  the 
border  completely  surrounding  it.  Some  endeavour 
should  be  made  to  get  good  pattern  with  the  masses  of 
gold  and  colour.  In  the  page  suggested  in  (/)  the 
decoration  is  formed  down  one  side,  springing  from  the 
initial  P.  The  initial  B  that  is  shown  here  is  in  raised 
gold,  the  flowers  in  the  centre  also  being  in  gold,  as 
well  as  the  berries  in  the  pen-work  springing  from 
the  letter.  The  background  of  the  letter  is  blue  and 
red — blue  where  the  shading  is  indicated  by  horizontal 
strokes  and  red  where  vertical  strokes  are  used. 

A  study  of  plant  form  is  very  useful  to  the  illumi- 
nator. The  decoration  used  by  the  mediaeval  artist 
was  practically  all  based  on  natural  forms,  and  some  of 
the  best  advice  that  can  be  given  to  the  modern 
illuminator  is  that  he  should  study  nature.  In  doing 
this  the  student  should  remember  that  the  object  is 
primarily  decoration  and  not  representation.  He 
should  not  degrade  this  art  into  a  mere  realistic  render- 
ing of  sprays  of  flowers,  insects,  etc.,  but  rather  aim  at 
producing  decoration  as  the  direct  result  of  his  study 
of  nature.  As  an  example,  some  of  the  ivy-leaf  decora- 
tion that  was  so  much  used  during  the  fourteenth 
century  is  shown  here.  The  importance  of  study  from 
nature  cannot  be  emphasized  too  strongly.  Drawing 
from  plant-form  is  one  of  the  best  exercises  the  illumi- 
nator can  have.  Possibly  a  few  hints  on  this  important 
study  will  be  of  service  to  the  student. 


ib4  ILLUMINATION 

In  the  first  place,  when  drawing  a  plant,  or  indeed 
any  natural  object,  one  should  be  careful  to  avoid 
drawing  it  like  drawing  a  map,  i.e.,  without  realising 
that  it  is  form.  If  this  is  persisted  in,  the  result  will 
be  that  the  drawing  will  be  lacking  in  vitality,  besides 
being  not  nearly  so  intelligible.  If  the  endeavour  be 
made  to  keep  constantly  before  the  mind  the  fact 
that  it  is  form  that  one  is  drawing,  and  everything  is 
carefully  reasoned  out  before  attempting  to  draw 
it,  the  finished  drawing  will  not  only  have  far  more 
life  in  it,  but  it  will  also  be  much  easier  to  under- 
stand. 

One  should  also  strive  to  draw  with  feeling  ;  there 
is  a  great  difference  between  a  living  plant  and  an 
artificial  reproduction  of  it.  The  drawings  of  plants 
and  flowers  made  by  some  students  remind  one  of 
paper  flowers  and  foliage,  as  they  are  drawn  in  such  a 
hard  and  severe  manner.  A  natural  leaf  is  a  thing  of 
beauty,  there  is  nothing  rigid  or  stiff  about  it,  but  one 
that  is  cut  out  of  paper  is  dead  and  unyielding  in  every 
respect  and  is  absolutely  devoid  of  all  feeling.  One 
should  get  all  the  life  and  feeling  possible  into  one's 
drawing,  and  this  comes  from  plenty  of  practice  in 
careful  and  thoughtful  drawing  from  nature. 

When  making  plant  studies  for  one's  own  use  in 
design  there  is  no  need  to  limit  oneself  by  making  outline 
drawings  in  pen  and  ink,  as  when  they  are  intended  to 
be  reproduced  by  means  of  line-blocks.  The  aim  of  the 
artist  should  be  to  make  the  drawing  as  much  as 
possible  like  the  original.  It  is  not  advisable  to  go 
in  for  sketchy  effects;  everything  should   be  made 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   ILLUMINATION     165 

perfectly  intelligible  so  that  it  is  possible  to  understand 
every  detail  of  the  drawing. 

Of  course,  some  parts  of  the  plant  should  be  painted 
in  colours,  so  as  to  form  a  record  of  the  actual  colours, 
but  for  general  drawing  a  soft  black-lead  pencil,  such 
as  a  3  or  4B,  is  very  useful.  One  should  be  careful 
to  observe  all  the  details,  such  as  the  way  the  branches 
attach  themselves  to  the  main  stem,  also  the  manner 
in  which  the  leaves  and  flowers  arrange  themselves. 
The  feeling  of  unity  which  runs  throughout  the  whole 
of  the  plant  should  be  carefully  noted,  how  there  is  a 
distinct  relationship  between  every  leaf  and  bud  with 
the  main  stem. 

There  is  no  need  to  confine  one's  nature  study  to 
actual  plant-drawing.  If  one's  powers  of  perception 
are  trained  to  observe,  there  is  a  great  deal  to  be  learned 
from  a  walk  in  the  country.  Attention  should  be 
given  to  the  pattern  that  abounds  everywhere  in 
nature  ;  flowery  banks  and  hedgerows  are  rich  in  sugges- 
tion. The  meadow  spangled  with  buttercups  and 
daisies  is  a  delightful  example.  A  field  of  barley 
when  it  is  just  beginning  to  change  colour  offers  a 
wealth  of  possibilities  both  in  pattern  and  colour. 
Then  take  trees,  their  different  structure  and  foliage. 
No  two  species  of  trees  are  exactly  alike  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  foliage,  etc.  One  should  not,  however,  give 
too  much  attention  to  detail  to  the  neglect  of  con- 
sidering things  as  a  whole.  For  example,  a  tree  as  a 
whole  should  be  noted,  attention  being  given  to  the 
way  in  which  the  trunk  springs  from  the  ground  and 
the  general  massing  of  the  branches  and  foliage. 


i66 


ILLUMINATION 


The  use  of  a  sketch-book  for  noting  things  down  is 
very  useful,  but  too  much  reliance  should  not  be  placed 
on  this.  If  one's  powers  of  perception  are  trained  to 
observe,  the  memory  will  be  stored  with  an  abundance 
of  suggestions  and  ideas  from  the  study  of  nature  that 
has  been  going  on  almost  unconsciously  day  by  day. 


c*y  utf  iiu  it* 

I'M  II  lilt   It 

hi  am  it  iiu 

HI  Mill  I*  J3B 

t|Ul  H  !ll  II* 

llllit  Itiuil* 

mm  i ill  II* 

£  ]  HI  till  HI 

M  MM  I*   «%4« 

•  III    t»    lllll* 

«M  im:*',  itl 
•1**1*  ill   It  IK 

iii*  >i*«  mw» 
mi  »•%  »»i*»i 
IH  HIUK  IUi 
•(■I  Ut  (IIM9 
«t  11***1  IUM4 
U*  tilt  *1|1*1W 
lll*«»  II  114.1* 
«  Mil  111  UU 
*W  «•  It  1**1*1 
W  UtlkJt  MM 


|  H  "I 

I  Ml* 

HUH 

nun  hi  i tt hi 
mil  n*  ttuitti 

|R  lltH  It  Itltl 
HI  t«N  tUtUS 
It  Ittl*  U  111  111 

hum  uuttH  hi 

H  '-*»«  HIM  •«« 

>*«\    K4S    IHM 

IHt  *t  «tHI 
UU  III  *l*l 
II  HM  1*1*1 
-4tl  il**H  111  Itf 
IIIU1  Ht  «"• 
Ml*  »*t»»t  «***• 
(■■  .1  It II  It*  Itl 
4*  tilt  I*  ItlBtlW 
ItUM  I*    IW  *rtl 

«*  nittt  i»  f*  *• 
iruw  *  h  lit* 


Fig.  33. 


As  well  as  nature  study,  the  student  should  also 
make  careful  study  of  some  of  the  best  illuminated 
work  of  the  mediaeval  period,  especially  on  the 
lines  indicated  in  the  chapter  on  the  Initial  Letter. 
The  use  of  a  note-book  will  prove  to  be  very  service- 
able for  this  purpose.  Quick  sketches  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  pages,  as  suggested  in  Fig.  33,  should  help 
the  student  very  much  in  arranging  the  decoration 


SiA**y  KaraWOTtli     l<J20. 


A  Roll  of  Honour. 


By  hind  permission  of 
Miss  Hani  son,  of 
Little  Waltham  Hall. 


{Facing  p.  161 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   ILLUMINATION     167 

of  the  page.  Of  course,  the  drawing  of  details  is 
also  useful,  as  by  carefully  copying  some  of  the 
initials  and  decoration  he  is  able  to  gain  some  experience 
of  the  mediaeval  artists'  methods  of  working. 

Possibly  it  may  be  as  well  to  say  a  few  words  about 
miniature  painting  in  connection  with  illumination. 
As  has  often  been  explained,  the  term  "  miniature  ' 
when  used  with  reference  to  illuminated  MSS.  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  modern  idea  of  miniature 
painting,  i.e.,  painting  on  a  small  scale  in  a  minute 
fashion,  as  the  word  "  miniature  "  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  word  minium,  the  red  pigment  used  in  the 
decoration  of  MSS.,  therefore  the  original  meaning  is 
writing  or  painting  with  minium.  There  is  also  no 
reason  at  all  why  miniatures,  when  painted  on  vellum 
and  used  in  conjunction  with  illumination,  should  be 
stippled  and  worked  up  in  the  minute  fashion  that  is 
usual  with  the  ordinary  miniatures  on  ivory. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  paint  these  in  a  similar  way 
to  the  ordinary  water-colour  painting.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  paint  on  vellum  in  this  way.  Undoubtedly 
the  best  way  is  to  paint  fairly  direct,  using  body  colour. 
The  miniatures  should  be  nicely  finished  without  any 
excessive  laboured  finish  produced  by  stippling  or 
other  similar  methods. 

A  miniature  should  always  be  treated  as  part  of 
the  decoration,  and  not  as  a  picture  added  to  it.  If 
the  student  examines  carefully  the  best  work  of  the 
mediaeval  period  he  will  notice  that  it  is  practically 
impossible  to  separate  the  miniature  from  the  rest  of 
the    decoration.     A    strong    feeling    of    unity    runs 


168  ILLUMINATION 

throughout  the  whole.  The  greater  part  of  modern  work, 
however,  differs  in  this  respect.  The  miniature  is 
often  quite  good,  so  also  is  the  decoration,  but  they 
are  independent  of  each  other.  It  would  be  quite 
possible  to  replace  the  miniature  by  another  totally 
different.  The  ideal  that  he  should  endeavour  to 
attain  to  is  to  make  the  miniature  with  the  rest  of  the 
decoration  form  one  harmonious  whole. 

Although  the  miniature  should  be  essentially  decora- 
tive, there  is  no  need  to  make  it  too  rigid  and  conven- 
tional. A  fair  amount  of  sketching  from  nature  will 
go  a  good  way  towards  preventing  this.  It  is  not  a  bad 
plan  for  the  student  to  practise  making  small  quick 
sketches  in  oils  from  nature,  treating  the  subject 
broadly  and  going  for  colour.  This  will  help  him  very 
much  in  painting  his  miniatures  in  a  direct  fashion,  and, 
if  this  is  combined  with  plenty  of  careful  drawing,  it 
should  enable  him  to  develop  his  style  of  decoration 
considerably. 

With  regard  to  the  decoration  as  a  whole,  it  has 
often  been  said  that  it  is  impossible  to  teach  one  how 
to  design,  but  that  it  is  possible  to  direct  one  in  the 
right  way  ;  and  there  is  no  better  method  than  that 
suggested  above,  viz.,  a  study  of  nature  combined 
with  good  examples  of  work  that  has  been  done  in  the 
past. 

When  designing,  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  strive 
after  originality.  The  way  to  be  original  is  to  be 
natural  and  do  the  work  in  the  best  way  that  one  is 
able.  If  the  artist  does  this  he  is  certain  to  be  original, 
as  he  cannot  help  himself.     If  he  strives  after  originality 


.+  mi 


s^cunuti 


zcn. 


»s 


DCS!  cVAlK 

i ;  PRinciPio 

erat;  Verbum  ,  et  Verbum  erst:  apuJ  ' 
Deum;  et  Veus  crat  Verbum  :  hoc 
crat  in  prindpio  apud  Deuro .  Om- 
nia per  ipsam  &c£a  sunt,  etstnc 
ipse  lactam  est  nihil  <^acd  faetum 
est:  in  ipso  vita  erot,  ct  vita  c-   i 
at  lux  Kominum ;  ec  lax  in  tcne- 
lucet ,  et  tencbret  earn  non 
CiHnprenenderanf. 

~uit  nemo  missus  a  Dcor  cui  no- 
men  erat  Joannes.  Yiic  venitity^ 
testimonium,  at  testimonium  per- ; 
hiberet  die  lumine,  ut  omnes  credcrent 
per  ilium.  Tion  erat  rile  lux:  &ed  ut 
testimonium  perhiberet  de  \\xrnine  .  I  * 
Brat  lux  vera  auce  illmninat  omnem 
hominem  venientem  in  hunc  mundutn. 
n  mundo  crat,  et  mundus  per  \p- 
sum  foetus  est,  et  mundus  cum  non 
cognovit.  In  propria  venit;ct  sui  cum^ 
non  recepcrunt.  Quotguotr  autem  re 
j&perant  cum,  deditexs  potestatcm 
ttiios  Dei  fieri :  his  qui  credunVin  nomi- 
ne ejus,  au\  non  ex  san^uinibus,nc^ae^ 
eK  voluntatis  camis,neotuc  ex  volun6ste 
virt.  sed  ex  Veo  nati  sunt.  ( ^3  Vei 
SUO)  CARO  FACWiXO  eSX5 ,  et  habita- 
vit  m  nobis ;  ct  vidimus  gloriam  ejus, 
aXcriam  quasi  Uwa/eniti  a  Patre,  pic-  w 
nam  gratice  et  veritatis. 


Siintu  Farosivcrtk. 


Illuminated  Altar  Tablet. 


ng  p.  169. 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   ILLUMINATION      169 

the  work  produced  will  be  of  an  unhealthy  type,  and 
will  show  signs  of  affectation  which  will  be  anything 
but  pleasant. 

Imitating  someone  else  is  equally  foolish,  as  an 
imitation  can  never  be  equal  to  the  real  thing.  Art 
is  worth  nothing  unless  it  springs  spontaneously  from 
the  joy  of  working,  without  any  concentration  on  its 
aesthetic  aspects.  Therefore  the  thing  for  the  modern 
illuminator  to  do  is  not  to  imitate  either  ancient  or 
modern  artists,  but  simply  seek  to  do  his  best, 
giving  the  best  workmanship  that  he  is  capable  of. 
There  are  untold  possibilities  in  the  future  for  the 
development  of  schools  of  illumination  as  great  as  any 
of  those  that  have  existed  in  the  past. 

There  are  quite  a  number  of  different  ways  in  which 
illumination  might  be  used  in  the  present  day.  Perhaps 
it  might  be  useful  to  suggest  a  few  of  these. 

The  Illuminated  Address  and  the  Illuminated  MS. 
Book  are  so  important  that  separate  chapters  have 
been  devoted  to  these. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  that  illumination 
can  be  used  for  is  for  the  service  of  the  Church. 

Altar  tablets  offer  plenty  of  scope  for  the  modern 
illuminator.  They  should,  of  course,  be  on  vellum 
and  be  framed  quite  simply. 

Service  Books,  such  as  the  Communion  Service, 
also  provide  another  application  for  illumination. 
Books  should  be  written  in  sections.  (See  Chapter  25 
on  the  Illuminated  MS.  Book.)  A  Service  Book  may 
either  be  fairly  elaborate  or  may  be  written  simply 
in  black  and  red.   It  is  as  well  to  use  red  for  the  Rubrics, 


170  ILLUMINATION 

so  as  to  make  a  distinction  between  these  and  the  rest 
of  the  text. 

The  Marriage  Service  is  another  thing  that  may  well 
be  written  out  in  good  script  and  illuminated.  This 
should  have  the  size  of  the  pages  on  the  small  side, 
as  in  this  case  it  would  be  for  the  use  of  a  private  person 
and  not  for  the  clergy. 

Texts  for  churches,  the  Creed,  Commandments, 
etc.,  are  also  subjects  suitable  for  illumination.  These 
should  be  bold  and  distinct. 

Permanent  Notices  in  churches  and  other  buildings 
would  be  much  more  attractive  if,  instead  of  the  usual 
printed  form  being  used,  they  were  executed  with 
beautiful  lettering,  preferably  with  a  reed  pen,  and 
possibly  illuminated.  These  should,  however,  not  be 
overburdened  with  decoration,  as  it  is  necessary  that 
they  should  be  as  distinct  as  possible.  Black  and 
burnished  gold  makes  a  very  effective  combination. 

Another  use  to  which  illumination  might  be  utilised 
is  Family  Trees  and  Pedigrees.  These  are  likely  to 
give  plenty  of  opportunities  for  the  illuminator,  as 
good  decoration  may  easily  be  formed  with  coats  of 
arms  and  other  symbols. 

Many  other  things  will  probably  suggest  them- 
selves to  the  artist  as  subjects  suitable  for  illumination. 


— 
X 

h 

= 

u 

PS 

c 

PL, 


o 

_ 

U 

< 


CHAPTER   XX 

THE    ILLUMINATED    ADDRESS 

The  illuminated  address  is  the  form  which  most 
modern  illumination  takes.  The  greater  number  of 
these  cannot,  even  by  the  widest  stretch  of  imagina- 
tion, be  called  works  of  art.  Not  only  are  they  generally 
executed  with  vivid  and  crude  colour  schemes,  but 
also  the  style  of  decoration  is  usually  extremely  bad. 
Some  of  the  letters  are  painfully  contorted.  Others 
are  represented  as  if  they  were  solid  blocks  throwing 
shadows,  and  are  drawn  in  false  perspective.  Meaning- 
less flourishes  abound.  Occasionally  a  little  bit  of 
decoration,  that  has  been  copied  from  some  mediaeval 
work,  is  introduced.  This,  however,  is  mixed  up  with 
a  lot  of  straggling  ornament  which  it  is  impossible  to 
conceive  as  having  been  produced  by  any  artist  of  the 
Middle  Ages. 

One  can  quite  understand  how  this  is  so  when  one 
considers  how  so  much  of  the  work  is  done.  Illumin- 
ated addresses  are  often  executed  by  people  who  have 
had  practically  no  training  at  all.  One  can  scarcely 
complain  if  they  are  in  bad  taste  when  such  is  the  case. 
If  one  has  had  a  good  grounding  by  studying  the  work 

of  the  ancient  illuminators  it  is  practically  impossible 

171 


172 


ILLUMINATION 


to  produce  this  type  of  work.  Therefore,  before 
attempting  to  work  in  a  modern  style,  the  student 
should  make  a  careful  study  of  the  work  of  the  mediaeval 
period. 

When  one  receives  an  enquiry  regarding  an  illumin- 
ated address,  a  definite  understanding  is  necessary  as  to 
the  form  which  the  address  is  to  take.     Those  generally 


Fig.  34. 


employed  are  the  Framed    Address,  the   Book  form, 
and  the  Vellum  Scroll.     (See  Fig.  34,  a,  b,  c.) 

One  should  be  able  and  willing  to  give  advice  and 
help  in  the  matter  of  wording.  It  is  advisable  to 
guard  against  the  usual  foolish  and  somewhat  bombastic 
manner  of  wording  testimonials.  The  first  or  third 
person  is  generally  employed,  but  it  would  be  much 
better  if  it  took  the  form  of  an  ordinary  letter  express- 
ing appreciation  and  good  wishes.     Whichever  form 


THE   ILLUMINATED  ADDRESS  173 

is  employed,  care  should  be  taken  that  these  are  not 
confused  in  any  way. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  make,  first  of  all,  a  careful  copy 
of  the  wording,  and  get  it  checked  with  the  original 
before  commencing  to  work.  This  will  prevent  mis- 
takes being  made.  Then  the  artist  should  find  out 
if  any  coats  of  arms,  etc.,  are  needed  to  be  introduced 
into  the  decoration.  The  approximate  size  is  then 
decided,  and  the  whole  is  roughed  out  in  pencil  on  detail 
paper  to  find  the  exact  spacing  of  the  lettering  and 
decoration. 

The  form  that  the  address  should  take  depends  on 
the  matter  to  be  introduced.  If,  for  example,  500 
names  are  required  to  be  appended,  a  framed  testi- 
monial is  clearly  out  of  the  question.  For  the  same 
reason  one  in  the  form  of  a  scroll  is  useless.  The  only 
practical  method  is  to  do  it  in  book  form. 

When  executing  an  address  in  this  manner,  the 
best  way  is  to  write  it  in  sections  composed  of  two 
folded  sheets.  After  the  work  is  completed,  the  whole 
is  carefully  bound  by  an  experienced  binder.  Another 
method  is  to  write  it  in  a  blank  album,  but,  if  this  is 
done,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  paper  is  of  good 
quality  and  suitable  for  writing  and  illuminating.  The 
paper  of  which  these  albums  are  generally  made  is 
unfortunately  rather  poor  in  quality. 

If  the  scroll  form  is  employed,  it  is  best  that  large 
masses  of  raised  gold  should  not  be  used  in  the  decora- 
tion, owing  to  the  likelihood  of  this  cracking  when  the 
vellum  is  rolled.  When  completed,  the  scroll  is 
generally  enclosed  in  a  cylindrical  case    or  a  metal 

M 


174  ILLUMINATION 

casket.  Of  course,  the  latter,  if  made  by  a  good  crafts- 
man, is  much  to  be  preferred. 

For  a  framed  testimonial  the  best  kind  of  frame  is 
undoubtedly  a  black  one,  as  this  serves  well  to  show  up 
the  brilliance  of  the  gold  and  colours.  It  is  also  a 
good  plan  to  frame  it  with  a  cut  mount,  so  that  the 
vellum  does  not  touch  the  glass. 

A  word  of  warning  is  possibly  needed  here.  When 
having  illuminated  work  on  vellum  framed,  it  is  most 
important  that  the  frame-maker  should  not  be  allowed 
to  mount  it.  If  he  does  this  he  is  almost  certain  to 
spoil  the  work,  as,  when  the  back  of  the  vellum  is 
damped,  the  moisture  soaks  through  and  softens  the 
raising  preparation,  thus  spoiling  the  raised  gold 
work ;  also  the  chances  are  that  the  vellum  will  be 
spoiled  at  the  same  time.  It  is  very  annoying,  after 
spending  a  considerable  time  on  the  work,  to  find  it 
completely  ruined  by  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
mount  it. 

If  a  list  of  names  is  wanted  at  the  end  of  an  address 
it  should  be  ascertained  if  signatures  are  needed  or  a 
carefully-written  list  of  names.  If  signatures  are 
required,  it  is  best  to  get  these  before  completing  the 
decoration.  Lines  should  be  ruled  faintly  with  a 
sharply -pointed  H.B.  pencil  to  act  as  a  guide  for  the 
various  writers.  The  signatures  should  all  be  written 
under  the  artist's  personal  supervision.  It  is  a  great 
mistake  to  allow  the  work  to  leave  one's  hands  before 
it  is  properly  finished.  If  it  is  carried  here  and  there 
by  various  people  it  is  very  liable  to  become  soiled,  to 
say  nothing  of  mistakes  made  and  signatures  written 


THE   ILLUMINATED   ADDRESS  175 

in  ink  of  various  shades.  A  good  fluid  Indian  ink, 
the  same  as  that  which  the  lettering  is  written  with, 
should  be  provided.  A  number  of  pens  of  different 
styles  should  be  to  hand,  with  paper  for  the  sub- 
scribers to  try  the  pens  on  before  signing  the  actual 
address. 

Signatures  certainly  have  a  more  sentimental 
value  than  a  mere  list  of  names.  A  neatly- 
written  list  of  names,  however,  looks  much  better 
and  is  more  in  keeping  with  the  decoration.  It  is 
best  to  place  the  names  in  alphabetical  order. 

If  the  names  are  to  be  put  in  by  the  artist,  he  should 
first  of  all,  as  mentioned  before  in  the  case  of  the  word- 
ing, make  a  copy  of  these  and  get  it  carefully  checked 
before  writing  them  in. 

It  is  very  usual  to  include  coats-of-arms  in  the 
decoration.  When  this  is  done,  great  care  should  be 
taken  that  these  are  blazoned  in  the  correct  colours, 
and  also  that  they  are  properly  drawn.  A  good  hand- 
book on  Heraldry  should  be  consulted.  The  illuminator 
should  have,  at  any  rate,  an  elementary  knowledge  of 
this  subject,  as  he  is  so  often  called  upon  to  make  use 
of  it. 

After  he  has  carefully  ascertained  by  means  of  the 
rough  drawing  the  measurements  and  spacing,  he 
should  start  work  straight  away  on  the  vellum.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  go  into  details  as  to  how  to  set 
about  this.  Explanations  have  already  been  given, 
in  a  previous  chapter,  concerning  how  to  set  out  an 
illuminated  page. 

In  the  case  of  a  beginner  who  has  not  sufficient 


176  ILLUMINATION 

confidence  in  himself  to  work  direct  on  the  vellum,  the 
first  drawing  may  be  made  on  a  sheet  of  tracing  paper. 
If  this  is  pinned  over  a  piece  of  white  paper  it  is  quite 
easy  to  work  upon.  When  the  drawing  is  completed, 
the  tracing  paper  should  be  reversed,  and  the  whole  of 
the  decoration  should  be  traced  on  the  back  of  it  with 
a  finely-pointed  H.B.  pencil.  This  is  referring  to  the 
decoration  only.  The  lettering  should  in  any  case 
be  written  straightway  on  to  the  vellum,  after  the 
necessary  measurements  and  calculations  have  been 
made. 

After  the  whole  of  the  decoration  has  been  traced 
through  the  tracing  paper  should  be  carefully  placed 
in  position  on  the  vellum.  It  should  be  fastened 
with  drawing-pins  down  one  side.  The  traced  decora- 
tion can  then  be  easily  transferred  to  the  vellum  by 
rubbing  the  back  of  the  tracing  paper  with  a  burnisher 
or  paper-knife.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  paper 
does  not  shift  about  during  this  process.  It  should  be 
held  firmly,  lifting  it  up  occasionally  to  see  if  a  clear 
impression  is  being  made. 

It  is  just  possible  that  the  illuminator  may  be 
asked  to  submit  a  rough  sketch.  He  should  bear  in 
mind  that  the  object  of  this  is  to  give  some  idea  ot 
the  finished  work.  This  should  be  executed  in  a  bold 
fashion  on  cartridge  paper  with  a  soft  pencil.  A  few 
words  may  be  written  in  the  script  that  he  intends  to 
use,  and  it  is  as  well  to  finish  a  small  portion  of  the 
decoration  in  colours.  This  should  enable  his  client 
to  understand  something  of  what  the  finished  work  will 
be. 


THE   ILLUMINATED   ADDRESS  177 

A  simple  but  very  effective  form  of  address  is 
that  having  a  coat-of-arms  at  the  top,  with  the  matter 
in  plain  lettering  with  a  fine  initial,  as  indicated  in 
(d).  A  still  simpler  form  might  consist  of  a  nice  piece 
of  lettering  with  a  plain  initial  either  in  raised  gold  or 
vermilion,  omitting  the  coat-of-arms  at  the  top. 


CHAPTER   XXI 

THE   VARIOUS   METHODS   OF   REPRODUCTION 

It  is  essential  that  the  artist  who  does  work  for  repro- 
duction should  have  some  knowledge  of  the  different 
methods  employed.  A  lack  of  knowledge  in  this 
respect  is  responsible  for  a  large  number  of  drawings 
made  which  are  quite  unsuitable  for  the  purpose. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  the  student  should  be  able  to 
reproduce  his  own  work  by  the  various  methods  used, 
but  he  should  be  familiar,  in  a  slight  degree,  with  the 
processes  used. 

For  black-and-white  work,  the  two  processes  largely 
used  by  publishers  in  magazines,  etc.,  are  known  as 
Line  Process  and  Half-Tone.  The  former  is  used  for 
the  reproduction  of  pen-drawings,  and  the  latter  for 
tone  drawings. 

The  line  process  is  the  most  useful  for  the  class  of 
work  that  the  illuminator  is  likely  to  do.  In  this  case 
the  method  of  procedure  is  briefly  as  follows  :  The 
drawing  is  made  with  good  black  ink  on  white  paper. 
It  is  then  photographed.  A  piece  of  polished  zinc  is 
given  a  thin  film  of  fish-glue  in  which  some  bichromate 
of    potash    has    been    dissolved.      The    effect    of    the 

bichromate  is  to  make  the  fish-glue  insoluble  when  it 

178 


VARIOUS   METHODS   OF   REPRODUCTION     179 

has  been  exposed  to  the  light.  The  zinc  plate  is  dried 
rapidly  in  a  subdued  light,  and  is  then  exposed  behind 
the  negative.  The  light,  penetrating  through  the 
clear  parts  of  the  negative,  renders  these  insoluble. 
The  zinc  is  then  given  a  thin  coating  of  soft,  greasy 
ink  with  a  roller.  It  is  then  placed  in  a  dish  of  water 
to  develop.  The  effect  of  the  water  is  to  dissolve  the 
fish-glue  that  has  been  protected,  and  is  therefore  still 
soluble.  This  leaves  the  design  on  the  surface  of 
the  zinc  in  ink.  While  the  ink  is  still  tacky,  it  is 
dusted  over  with  resin.  This  is  fused  over  a  stove,  and 
the  background  of  the  zinc  is  etched  away  in  an  acid 
bath,  leaving  the  design  standing  in  relief. 

This  is,  briefly,  an  outline  of  the  process  of  making 
a  line  block.  Of  course,  it  must  be  understood  that 
many  details  are  omitted  in  this  description.  These, 
however,  although  most  important  to  the  block- 
maker,  are  not  necessarily  essential  to  the  artist.  The 
chief  thing  that  he  should  be  careful  to  ensure  is  that 
his  drawings  should  be  executed  with  an  absolutely 
black  line  on  white  paper.  By  this  means  he  will 
have  done  his  part  to  help  the  block-maker  to  obtain 
a  clear  negative,  which  is  unquestionably  vital  to 
the  production  of  a  successful  process  block.  Draw- 
ings executed  with  a  weak,  washy  kind  of  ink  on  yellow- 
toned  paper  do  not  give  the  block-maker  a  chance. 
The  thing,  then,  for  the  artist  to  remember  is  to  see  that 
his  drawing  consists  of  firm  black  lines  on  a  white 
surface,  with  no  half-tones,  unless  these  are  produced 
by  means  of  lines. 

For  drawings  executed  in  tone,  the  other  method. 


i8o  ILLUMINATION 

known  as  the  half-tone  process,  is  used.  In  this  case 
the  drawing  is  photographed  with  a  glass  screen  in 
front  of  the  negative.  This  screen  is  ruled  with  fine 
lines  in  such  a  manner  that  the  tints  of  the  original 
are  broken  up  into  dots.  The  print  is  obtained  on  the 
metal,  and  the  block  is  made  in  a  somewhat  similar 
manner  to  that  of  a  line  block.  In  etching,  the  metal 
is  bitten  away  round  the  edges  of  the  various  dots 
more  or  less,  according  to  the  strength  of  these.  This 
gives  a  similar  effect  of  light  and  shade  to  the  original. 
An  examination,  with  a  magnifying-glass,  of  any  re- 
production of  a  photograph  or  tone-drawing  in  any  of 
the  magazines  of  the  present  day  will  show  this  quite 
plainly. 

When  working  for  this  process,  drawings,  should 
be  rather  more  vigorous  than  are  required  in  the 
finished  production.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
photograph  generally  softens  down  everything,  so  it 
is  as  well  to  forestall  this  by  making  the  original 
stronger. 

It  is  also  important  that  the  half-tones  in  the 
drawing  should  not  tend  towards  being  a  bluish  grey, 
as  blue  does  not  photograph  well.  The  result  of  a 
reproduction  from  a  drawing  of  this  kind  would  be 
that  the  half-tones  would  be  much  weaker  than  in  the 
original. 

In  colour  reproduction,  a  method  largely  used  is 
that  known  as  the  three-colour  process.  This  is  a 
development  of  the  half-tone  process.  In  this  case, 
however,  the  drawing  is  photographed  three  times  in 
succession  on  different  plates.     In  each  case  a  colour 


VARIOUS  METHODS   OF   REPRODUCTION    181 

filter  is  placed  in  front  of  the  lens,  which  allows  only 
the  red,  yellow,  or  blue  rays  to  pass  through.  By 
this  means  the  three  negatives  obtained  are  records  of 
the  red,  yellow,  and  blue  used  in  the  drawing.  Three 
blocks  are  made,  and  are  printed  in  red,  yellow,  and 
blue  ink  respectively,  superimposed  over  each  other. 
This,  if  carefully  done,  gives  a  fairly  faithful  reproduc- 
tion of  the  original.  Sometimes  an  extra  block  is  used, 
and  in  the  case  of  the  reproduction  of  illuminated  work, 
a  special  block  is  used  to  print  the  gold.  It  can 
easily  be  understood  why  this  is  necessary,  as,  when 
printed  from  the  three  blocks  only,  this  comes  out  as 
a  colour  in  the  printing. 

When  working  for  this  form  of  reproduction  there 
is  no  need  to  limit  oneself  in  the  number  of  colours 
used.  Work  that  has  been  executed  with  about 
twenty  different  colours  can  be  reproduced  as 
easily  as  that  in  which  only  four  or  five  colours  are 
used. 

As  in  half-tone,  the  work  should  be  stronger  and 
more  vigorous  than  is  needed  in  the  finished  reproduc- 
tion. The  colours  also  should  be  bright  and  clear, 
and  the  modelling  should  be  strongly  accentuated, 
as  this  process  has  a  tendency  towards  flattening  every- 
thing. If  the  original  appears  flat  and  washed-out 
in  treatment,  it  will  certainly  look  much  worse  when 
reproduced. 

Another  process,  largely  used  for  commercial  work, 
is  lithography.  This  is  quite  different  from  any  of  the 
previously  mentioned  processes.  In  all  these  the 
blocks  are  in  relief,  and  are  printed  in  a  typographic 


182  ILLUMINATION 

press.  For  the  general  form  of  lithography,  a  species 
of  limestone  is  used.  This  process  depends  on  the 
absorption  of  grease  by  this  stone,  and  on  the  mutual 
antipathy  of  grease  and  water.  The  design  is  drawn 
on  the  surface  of  the  stone  with  a  greasy  ink.  The 
grease  is  absorbed  by  the  stone.  The  stone  is  then 
damped  all  over  ;  the  greasy  ink  of  the  design  repels 
the  water,  but  where  there  is  no  design  the  surface  of 
the  stone  becomes  wet.  An  ink-roller  is  then  passed 
over  the  stone  while  it  is  still  damp.  As  this  printing 
ink  is  of  a  greasy  nature,  it  will  leave  the  roller  only  for 
the  lines  of  the  design,  which  remain  quite  dry.  The 
moist  surface  of  the  stone  repels  the  ink.  After  the 
stone  has  been  inked  up,  a  print  is  obtained  in  a 
lithographic  press. 

For  general  work  the  surface  of  the  stone  is 
highly  polished,  but  for  the  reproduction  of  chalk 
drawings  and  for  shading  purposes  it  is  given  a 
grain. 

Zinc  and  aluminium  plates  are  often  used  as  sub- 
stitutes for  stone.  These,  although  not  as  good  as 
stone,  have  the  advantages  of  being  cheaper  and  more 
portable. 

Colour  printing  by  this  process  is  known  as  chromo- 
lithography.  A  separate  stone  is  used  to  print  each 
colour.  A  careful  tracing  is  first  made  of  the  outline 
of  the  drawing,  and  this  is  transferred  to  the  surface 
of  the  stone.  This  forms  the  key-stone  from  which 
the  other  colour  stones  are  prepared.  When  it  is 
desired  to  print  gold,  the  stone  is  rolled  up  with  a  very 
sticky  kind  of  ink.     A  print  is  obtained  in  this  medium, 


VARIOUS   METHODS   OF   REPRODUCTION     183 

and  while  this  is  still  tacky  it  is  dusted  over  with 
powdered  bronze,  which  adheres  to  the  print  and 
gives  the  effect  of  gilding  to  some  extent.  For  very 
special  work  real  gold  is  occasionally  employed  in- 
stead of  bronze  powder. 

It  can  easily  be  understood  that  the  larger  number 
of  colours  used,  the  more  costly  this  process  is.  Stu- 
dents often  wonder  why  designs  are  sometimes  not 
accepted  by  firms  who  use  this  process.  Very  often  one 
of  the  most  important  reasons  is  that  too  many  colours 
are  employed.  If  a  design  is  shown  that  can  be  pro- 
duced with  a  striking  effect  with  two  or  three  print- 
ings only,  it  will  certainly  be  considered  before  one 
requiring  ten  or  twelve. 

Lithography  is  used  for  the  greater  bulk  of  com- 
mercial work,  such  as  posters,  labels,  Christmas  cards, 
etc. 

The  great  thing  to  remember  when  doing  work 
for  reproduction  by  chromo-lithography  is  to  get  a 
good  effect  with  as  few  colours  as  possible.  There 
is  no  need  in  this  case  to  make  the  drawing  more 
vigorous  than  is  required,  as  the  lithographer  will 
endeavour  to  get  exactly  the  same  effect  as  in  the 
original. 

The  student  who  is  ignorant  as  to  the  different 
methods  of  reproduction  employed  should  at  any  rate, 
after  paying  a  little  attention  to  the  descriptions  given, 
avoid  making  designs  that  are  almost  impossible  to 
reproduce  satisfactorily.  The  object  of  this  chapter 
is  not  to  teach  the  student  how  to  reproduce  his 
drawings  by  means  of  the  processes  described.     The 


184  ILLUMINATION 

only  reasons  for  dealing  with  the  subject  are  to 
enable  him  to  produce  workable  designs,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  give  him  an  added  interest  in  his 
work  by  an  elementary  knowledge  of  the  methods  of 
reproduction. 


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[Facing  p.  185. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

CHRISTMAS  CARDS 

In  the  application  of  illumination  for  purposes  of 
reproduction,  designing  for  Christmas  cards  occupies  a 
prominent  place.  Although  these  are  not  all  necessa  rily 
of  the  illuminated  type,  a  great  number  are  of  this 
kind.  All  varieties  have  lettering  as  an  important 
part  of  the  design.  There  is  plenty  of  scope  for  the 
illuminator  in  this  direction.  If  he  can  produce 
effective  designs  that  can  be  easily  printed,  and  are 
likely  to  be  saleable  when  reproduced,  publishers  of 
Christmas  cards  will  always  be  pleased  to  see  his  work. 
When  designing,  there  is  no  necessity  for  using 
permanent  colours,  as  the  original  is  seldom  kept 
after  it  has  been  printed.  The  same  thing  applies 
to  the  use  of  gold-leaf  for  gilding.  This  can  be  done 
with  bronze  powder.  Gold  paint  can  be  readily  made 
by  mixing  the  powdered  bronze  to  a  stiff  paste  with 
gum  water,  then  thinning  it  out  with  water  so  that  it 
flows  freely  from  the  brush.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
get  the  right  amount  of  gum  in  it,  as  if  there  is  too 
much  it  will  present  a  shiny  appearance  and  will 
turn  black  quickly.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  there 
is  not  enough  to  bind  the  particles  of  bronze  to- 
gether, it  will  rub  off  when  touched.     The  best  way 

185 


186  ILLUMINATION 

is  to  test  before  proceeding  with  the  work,  by  paint- 
ing on  a  small  piece  of  paper  and  noting  the  effect 
when  dry. 

When  it  is  desired  to  produce  raised  gold,  this  also 
can  be  done  with  bronze  powder.  For  this  purpose 
some  raising  preparation,  of  the  kind  sold  in  the  form 
of  a  thick  paint,  should  be  used.  A  little  should  be 
placed  in  a  small  saucer,  and  a  drop  of  honey  added 
to  it  with  some  water.  It  should  then  be  carefully 
rubbed  up  with  the  finger  until  it  is  about  the  same 
consistency  as  cream.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
add  too  much  honey,  otherwise  the  raising  will  not 
dry  at  all,  but  will  remain  a  sticky  mass. 

The  parts  that  are  intended  to  be  raised  should  be 
filled  in  with  this,  in  the  same  manner  as  described 
for  leaf-gilding  in  a  previous  chapter.  After  this  has 
become  dry  on  the  surface,  it  should  be  breathed  upon 
until  it  becomes  tacky.  The  bronze  powder  is  then 
dusted  over  it  with  a  small  piece  of  cotton-wool. 
After  leaving  for  a  little  while,  the  superfluous  bronze 
is  dusted  off  with  a  clean  piece  of  cotton-wool.  Any 
parts  where  the  bronze  powder  has  not  attached  itself 
can  generally  be  covered  by  again  breathing  upon  the 
surface  and  applying  the  bronze.  No  attempt 
should  be  made  to  burnish  gilding  done  in  this  way. 

Christmas  cards  are  nearly  always  produced  by 
means  of  chromo-lithography,  as  described  in  the 
previous  chapter.  Occasionally  they  are  produced  by 
means  of  line  and  three-colour  blocks,  but,  generally 
speaking,  chromo-iithography  is  the  process  employed. 

When  about  to  make  a  design,  the  student  should 


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CHRISTMAS   CARDS  187 

endeavour  to  visualise  the  completed  design  before 
commencing  work.  If  he  cultivates  this  habit  he  will 
find  it  much  better  than  worrying  a  design  into  exis- 
tence— a  method  very  often  employed. 

It  is  a  good  plan,  when  setting  out  to  design,  to 
ask  oneself  a  series  of  questions  :  "  How  is  it  to  be 
reproduced  ?  "  "  What  style  of  design  is  needed  ?  " 
"  What  is  the  general  taste  of  the  buyers  of  this  kind 
of  thing  ?  "  etc.  If  one  asks  oneself  a  number  of 
similar  questions  to  these,  it  should,  at  any  rate,  be 
the  means  of  ensuring  that  the  design  is  suited  to  its 
purpose. 

A  very  common  fault  in  designing  Christmas  cards 
is  making  them  too  heavy  in  treatment.  It  is  essential 
that  the  finish  should  be  light  and  dainty. 

Designs  may  be  either  for  the  complete  card  or 
merely  for  the  outside  cover.  Several  suggestions 
are  shown  in  Fig.  35.  Of  course,  it  will  be  understood 
that  these  are  only  rough  sketches.  They  do  not 
pretend  to  be  designs. 

The  one  represented  by  (a)  is  for  the  general  type 
of  illuminated  design.  This  is  for  the  outside  cover 
only  :  a  short  greeting  with  an  illuminated  initial  and 
decoration.  When  selecting  words  for  this  purpose, 
one  should  be  careful  to  choose  something  not  too  trite. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  as  well  to  avoid  using  some 
copyright  quotation. 

The  designer  must  be  up-to-date :  he  must  not  expect 
to  sell  his  designs  if  he  gets  his  ideas  from  Christmas 
cards  that  were  published  twenty  years  ago. 

There  are  no  special  sizes  to  work  to,  as  cards  of 


i88 


ILLUMINATION 


all  shapes  and  sizes  are  produced.  It  is  best,  however, 
not  to  get  them  too  large. 

The  style  of  card  indicated  in  (b)  is  a  very  usual 
kind.  The  centre  is  left  blank  for  a  small  picture,  or  a 
monogram,  to  be  inserted. 

If  the  artist  is  able  to  paint  little  landscapes  or 
girls'  heads,  he  could  insert  them  himself  as  shown  in 


res© 

for  Chnstsaca 

V     r\cu>Vtor.jL 


—ae  g 


Gfrecttiwrir. 


fT°y 


/njtrfc     J5i 


gM 


Fig.  35. 

(c) .  He  should,  however,  avoid  getting  these  heavy  or 
crude  in  colour. 

The  designer  will  always  find  that  he  is  much  more 
likely  to  sell  his  designs  if  they  represent  new  ideas.  The 
publisher  is  always  on  the  look-out  for  something  new. 

For  example,  the  idea  might  be  a  small  booklet 
containing  a  brief  anthology  on  "  Happiness,"  or 
some  other  like  subject. 


CHRISTMAS  CARDS 


189 


If  a  small  booklet  is  designed,  it  is  as  well  to  re- 
member that  all  the  pages  should  not  be  fully  illumin- 
ated. The  cover  and  the  opening  page  might  be 
illuminated  in  gold  and  colours,  while  the  rest  might 
be  in  black  and  red  only.  If  the  booklet  was  executed 
with  all  its  pages  fully  illuminated  it  would  probably 
be  rejected  on  the  score  of  expense  of  reproduction. 


jl-i&ug  p  cud  1 

£2S=>Je| 

k-^Kr'atrmoS 

"           4 

~--.,-,f 

1                   •*■ 

'Sheet  for  Oblony  Booklet 


Sheet  for  Upr^ht  Booklet. 


£heef 

folded  ttO 
to  make 
OUona- 

Booklet' 


Sheer 
folded  up 
to  make 
Upriakt 
BceUltt 


Fig.  36. 

It  is  little  things  like  this  which,  if  taken  into  considera- 
tion, would  prevent  a  good  number  of  the  disappointing 
refusals  that  are  so  often  received. 

A  very  attractive  form  of  card  is  shown  in  (d). 
This  has  a  cover  design,  a  greeting  with  a  space  for 
name,  and  a  quotation.  When  a  card  of  this  type  is 
designed  it  should  be  arranged  as  shown  in  Fig.  36. 

By  this  means  the  card,  when  opened  out,  has  the 

N 


igo  ILLUMINATION 

design  all  on  the  same  side  of  the  paper,  and  is  much 
more  convenient.  Some  may  be  made  upright  and 
others  oblong  in  shape,  as  in  Fig.  36. 

The  prices  paid  for  Christmas  card  designs  may  be 
anything  from  10s.  6d.  to  £3  3s.  Of  course,  higher 
prices  than  these  are  often  paid  for  good  work,  when 
there  is  a  demand  for  the  work  of  the  designer.  A  good 
average  price  for  a  design,  however,  is  £1  is. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  mark  designs  at  a  low  figure, 
with  the  idea  that  the  publisher  will  be  more  likely  to 
take  them.  This  is  quite  a  wrong  impression,  as,  if 
the  publisher  wants  the  designs,  he  will  not  be  slow  to 
make  an  offer  if  the  price  is  too  high  ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  if  they  are  not  suitable  for  his  purpose,  he 
would  not  take  them  as  a  gift. 

When  sending  designs,  it  is  as  well  not  to  write 
long  letters  of  explanation.  Letters  should  be  as 
brief  and  pointed  as  possible. 

Apart  from  designing  for  publishers,  the  illuminator 
ought  to  be  able  to  produce  a  series  of  hand-written 
Christmas  cards.  There  ought  to  be  a  demand  for 
cards  well  written  in  fine  script  on  nice  hand-made 
paper.  A  little  simple  decoration  might  be  added  in 
colour,  and  the  modern  illuminator  ought  to  be  able 
to  produce  these  quite  quickly,  and  therefore  cheaply. 
Invitation  cards  for  select  parties  are  amongst 
numerous  other  things  that  suggest  themselves  for 
production  in  this  manner.  Of  course,  for  large 
gatherings,  where  a  good  number  of  invitations  are 
sent  out,  writing  them  by  hand  is  out  of  the  question. 
But  when  this  is  the  case,  one  copy  could  be  nicely 


V 


CHRISTMAS   CARDS  191 

written  in  black  and  a  zinc  line  block  made  from  this. 
The  edition  could  then  be  printed  off.  An  invitation 
card  written  in  well-formed  lettering  would  make  a 
pleasant  change  from  the  usual  type  of  card. 

Possibly  a  number  of  other  opportunities  will 
suggest  themselves  where  fine  pen-formed  lettering 
might  be  substituted  in  place  of  the  ordinary  style  of 
thing. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

LETTERING    FOR   COMMERCIAL   PURPOSES 

The  ability  to  produce  good  lettering  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  the  artist  employed  in  commercial  work. 
The  list  of  things  that  require  lettering  seems  almost 
endless.     To  mention  just  a  few,  there  are  posters, 

An    Attractive   Advertisement. 
THE  SUCCESS  OF 

.WVS  #MEANS 

Obtainable    ?&  Wee&q  Veviea t  of ' Industrq.'JPtuJe.      Write  ^ 
frcmqour-  Commerce  ana  Social  krroqress.  for  booklet 

book* tailor  ^  entitled  "The 

%Wf      Is  due  to  the  interest  and  help  u,hich   this  u*      ^oadV^" 
Trice  6d.         ,  i      rr     i  i  i       1  1 1-      -  It  will  be  sent 

Weekly         journal  affords  to  business  men  bq  the  publication         post  free. 

week  bq  week  of  expert  opiiuons  oil  the  problems 

and  tendencies  of  Industrial  and  Social  Progress 

BENN  3KOTHERS  LTD..  S  BOUVERIE  STE.C.4 


By  kind  permission  of 
Messrs.  Benn  Bros,  Ltd. 


catalogue  covers,  showcards,  labels,  boxes,  packages, 
displayed  advertisements,  calendars,  title-pages,  book 
covers,  magazine  covers,  letter  headings,maps,  diagrams, 
etc.  This  list  might  be  extended  considerably  and  yet 
not  include  all  the  many  things  for  which  lettering  is 
absolutely  necessary. 


192 


*  \ 


PHSCfiHLIH 

sint  omnibus  qui  la! 
ncgotiorte  nobiscum 
vcrsaatur.    *  X>^ 


Design  for  Booklet  Cover. 


By  kind  permission 
of  the  House 
of  Vanheems 
and  Messrs.  Clarke 
&  Sherwell,  Ltd 


\ Facing  p.  192. 


LETTERING  FOR  COMMERCIAL  PURPOSES  193 

In  fact,  when  one  begins  to  consider  the  number  of 
things  that  require  lettering  of  some  description,  one 
begins  to  realise  how  essential  it  is  that  the  artist  should 
be  able  to  produce  good  and  well-spaced  lettering. 

As  mentioned  before  in  an  earlier  chapter,  there  is 
nothing  like  having  plenty  of  practice  with  the  reed 
and  quill  pen  to  help  the  student  towards  ability  to 
mass  and  arrange  lettering  in  the  best  possible  way. 
The  difference  between  the  lettering  done  by  one  who 
has  had  plenty  of  practice  with  the  reed  or  quill,  and 
one  who  has  had  no  experience  in  this  direction,  is 
most  noticeable.  The  one  is  able  to  design  with  words, 
while  the  other  is  concerned  only  with  the  shapes  of 
the  letters.  To  be  able  to  produce  well-arranged 
lettering  it  is  necessary  to  be  able  to  design  with  words, 
and  familiarity  with  the  reed  or  quill  gives  this  facility 
better  than  any  other  training.  No  matter  how  the 
letters  are  formed  alterwards,  the  experience  gained 
in  massing  letters  together  in  this  way  to  form  words 
will  be  found  to  be  of  great  service. 

The  arrangement  of  letters  to  form  words  is  of  the 
utmost  importance ;  in  fact  it  might  be  said  to  be  as 
essential  a  factor  as  the  formation  of  the  individual 
letters. 

A  well-arranged  inscription  often  adds  greatly  to 
the  finish  of  a  drawing,  and  with  the  latter  it  often 
happens  that  it  is  incomplete  without  a  heading  or 
title  of  some  description.  But  this,  if  badly  done,  may 
completely  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  drawing. 

Maps  and  diagrams  require  a  simple  form  of  letter- 
ing that  is  distinct  and  at  the  same  time  can  be  written 


jgfc. Sifincu  Farnsutorthjg/g.  jfe 

A  Handbook  Cover. 
194 


LETTERING  FOR  COMMERCIAL  PURPOSES  195 

in  a  fairly  quick  manner.  The  style  of  Roman  letter- 
ing, formed  with  simple  pen-strokes,  shown  in  a 
previous  chapter,  might  be  used  for  this  purpose  ;  or 
the  simple  pen-formed  italics  might  be  used.  For 
writing  these  a  sharply-cut  quill  pen  is  required. 

In  Fig.  37  an  alphabet  is  shown  which  is  formed 


ABCDEFGHUKLMNOPQ, 
RSTUVWXYZ  abcdefghi) 
ktmaopqrstavwxyz  &. 
Lettering  for  Maps,  Plans, etc 
Slanting  Letters  may  be  used 

EOTING}*^^  "fa 
VOTINGIffJf^ 

/  he  Letter  U  appears  smaller 

MOON  MOONS 

Round  Letters  should prefect slghtlij  ovzr  the  Luue  Letters 

MIT    F     Upstrokes  should 
l\    not   be  plcuxd.  too  closely 

A  . 


Fig.  37. 


with  all  strokes  of  equal  thickness.  This  is  a  very 
useful  kind  of  lettering  for  illustrations,  maps,  and 
diagrams.  It  has  one  distinct  advantage :  that  is,  it 
can  be  written  with  the  same  pen  that  the  drawing  is 
made  with.  If  this  style  of  lettering  is  used,  however, 
it  is  as  well  to  make  sure  that  all  the  strokes  are  of 
equal  thickness.  It  should  not  look  like  quill-pen 
writing  badly  done.     This  type  of  lettering  may  be 


196  ILLUMINATION 

upright  or  slanting.  Until  the  student  is  quite  familiar 
with  this  lettering  two  lines  may  be  used.  The  writing 
should  be  done  very  carefully  and  the  words  should  be 
well  spaced.  This  kind  of  lettering  should  be  used 
only  for  names  on  maps,  notes  on  diagrams,  or  refer- 
ences under  illustrations.  When  a  title  is  needed  for 
an  illustration,  or  a  heading  is  required,  carefully- 
drawn  Roman  lettering  should  be  used.  Each  letter 
should  be  exact  in  finish,  and  at  the  same  time  there 
should  be  good  arrangement. 

For  poster  work  it  is  essential  that  the  lettering 
should  be  bold  and  decisive.  For  hand-written  posters, 
that  need  to  be  produced  quickly,  the  Roman  alpha- 
bet, formed  with  simple  pen-strokes,  given  in  a  previous 
chapter,  will  be  found  useful.  A  large  reed  pen 
should  be  used  for  this  purpose.  By  using  red  and 
black  inks  very  effective  hand-written  notices  may 
be  produced.  If  the  poster  is  to  be  displayed  out-of- 
doors,  waterproof  inks  only  should  be  used  for  writing 
it  with.  However,  this  will  be  dealt  with  in  the  next 
chapter. 

For  lettering  on  a  poster  that  is  to  be  reproduced, 
a  good  strong  Roman  type  of  lettering  is  the  best. 
The  type  shown  in  Fig.  38  is  a  very  suitable  kind. 
It  must  be  strong,  bold,  and  well  displayed.  The 
principal  words  must  show  up  strongly  defined.  For 
this,  and,  indeed,  all  kinds  of  commercial  design,  the 
lettering  must  be  firm  and  exact  to  a  nicety.  The 
looseness  that  is  suited  to  illumination  will  not  do  for 
this  kind  of  work.  The  little  accidental  turns  and 
twists,  which  are  one  of  the  charms  of  illuminated 


Ol=0  =  (}  =  : 


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of  tKc  PsLxtloaaX  InsttttLt* 
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awarded  &.s 
to  tKe 


arol 


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tkis     ertif icatc  is  presented,  to 

a.  memier  of  tke.  P^rty,  ia  recognition,  of  it©  ! 
success  ia  winning  ftrst  pLxcc-  la  tKc  N&bicn&' ' 
Carol  Lc&tfuc  CKoir  Compctitloa . 


istm&s, 


a* 

CK»ifnun  of  The  BUnxLtel 
SoUtars  Juvd  Sailors  Cato 
Committee;   President  of 
tke  ?-lxtioruti.  InetiXuC?,  -m 
for  trie  Blirtol .     a  ■  n  •   a 


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A  Design  for  a  Certificate. 

BY    SIDNEY    FARNSWORTH. 


By  kind  permission  of  the 
National  Institute  for  the  Blind, 
and  the  Byron  Studios. 


[Facing  p.  196. 


LETTERING  FOR  COMMERCIAL  PURPOSES  197 

work,  would  be  entirely  out  of  place  in  commercial 
work,  which  must  be  firm  and  strong  in  every  detail. 
Penscript  is  not  used  to  any  large  extent.  The  greater 
part  of  the  lettering  used  in  commercial  design  is 
carefully  drawn  in  an  extremely  accurate  manner. 


ABCDEF 
GHIJKLM 
NOPQRST 
UVWXYZ 


Fig.  38. 

When  lettering  a  poster,  some  endeavour  should 
be  made  to  get  a  certain  amount  of  display  in  the 
lettering.  For  example,  if  the  object  is  to  advertise 
"  Brown's  Tea,"  or  "  Smith's  Cocoa,"  great  prominence 
must  be  given  to  these  words.     The  lettering  should 


gggaqaaK 


i 


1 


3& 


8 


o 


LITTLE  WALTHAM 
*    HONEY   * 

Little  Waltkam  Bees 
cf  Little  W&ltJiAnv  Flowers      ®c 

6 


*    ®  <?  ©    attke  I 
ft    Little  W&ltkaurv  Aptao-tes,  i 


*  • ;  iy 


ffl  CHELMSFORD,  ESSEX.  ffi  j^l& 


j 


*       S3 


<S>       o     « 


>*    «    ^»     ^»    ^     ^^    4^  ♦*■'*    ^^    ^p   ^^  ^^    4H>    «w  '  >'<    ^m     4M  ^»  <4K  ^^    ^*    '■     ■   ^*   ^» '  ^V     ^P    '•!-*• 


ORANGE 
MARMALADE 

M&de  from  Seville   OrAndes 
&nd  Pure  Suqtor  on[y 


,!:v«v.' 


>yw>:":>; 


^••■•^•^^•.••^•••■^■••^••"^•"^■•••O""*-'"*---*""^""*""*""*"-* 


^  Two  Designs  for  Labels. 


190 


LETTERING  FOR  COMMERCIAL  PURPOSES  199 

be  so  arranged  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  avoid 
seeing  the  name  of  the  commodity  that  is  being  adver- 
tised. 

Another  important  thing  when  lettering  advertise- 
ments is  to  see  that  each  letter  is  quite  distinct.  For 
example,  C  must  not  be  mistaken  for  a  G,  and  vice 
versa. 

For  good  arrangement  in  lettering  the  mistake 
should  not  be  made  of  taking  type  as  a  model,  as, 
owing  to  each  type  letter  being  in  the  form  of  a  block, 
it  is  impossible  to  space  it  with  the  same  facility  that 
is  possible  with  writing.  Note  the  examples  given 
in  Fig.  22. 

One  or  two  further  hints  may  be  useful.  It  is 
never  advisable  to  put  two  upright  strokes  too  closely 


HENRY  G.  CLARK 

FLORIST,  FRUITERER,  AND  GREENGROCER. 

„...»...„  5^  HidK  Street,  •••■•-• 

*m%Z  S  H I  RLIT^GFORD.  &k& 

Telephone. No.  6oZ5-  Tdcgratns :  Clark.  S/urLnffordL  . 

—    A,  Dcs^pi.  for  a.  Letter  Hcaduvr:     — 

together.  Also  in  the  case  of  round  letters,  such  as 
O,  C,  G,  etc., J  these  should  project  slightly  over  the 
line,  otherwise  they  wall  appear  smaller  than  the  other 


lca^»»%L***»a»»*<»»»rai»!» 


200  ILLUMINATION 

letters.  This  should,  however,  be  very  slight,  as  it  is 
easy  to  overdo  this  kind  of  thing. 

When  lettering  a  diagram,  if  possible  keep  all  the 
lettering  the  same  way,  so  that  there  is  no  need  to  turn 
the  page  round  to  read  it.  This  is,  of  course,  not 
always  possible,  but  if  it  is  at  all  practicable  it  is  quite 
the  best  thing  to  do. 

It  is  nevei  wise  to  jumble  a  number  of  different 
styles  of  lettering  together  in  one  inscription,  as  is 
sometimes  done.  The  practice  of  this  kind  of  thing 
tends  to  make  the  lettering  less  readable,  besides 
making  it  look  somewhat  freakish.  Sometimes  the 
use  of  two  styles  of  lettering  together,  such  as  an 
upright  form  of  Roman  lettering  and  an  italic,  helps 
to  emphasize  certain  words  ;  but  when  a  variety  of 
different  forms  is  used  the  only  result  is  to  make  the 
lettering  look  confused. 

For  the  greater  part  of  commercial  work  a  form  of 
Roman  lettering  is  used.  The  student  who  intends  to 
practise  this  kind  of  work  should  study  some  of  the 
best  modern  work.  He  will  have  no  difficulty  in 
getting  plenty  of  examples. 

When  designing  a  cover  for  a  magazine,  one  of  the 
first  things  to  be  taken  into  consideration  is  how  to 
make  it  stand  out  in  a  striking  manner  so  that  it  will 
be  noticed  on  the  bookstall. 

Designs  for  magazine  covers  may  be  roughly 
divided  into  two  classes,  viz.,  those  which  occupy  the 
whole  of  the  cover,  and  those  where  the  design  is  in 
the  form  of  a  heading.  In  any  case,  however,  it  is 
best  that  the  title  should  be  prominently  arranged  at 


.# & & -*» o a o o » <* 


*;**■ 


a 


co 


ON  ATE 

(Sonata  quasi  una  Fantasia) 
Op.  27.  No.  2. 

Dcr  Qrafirt  Jalic  Guicciardl  jcujuiraet. 

L.v.  BEETHOVEN. 


o  —#--v=^ 


•  s « 


LONDON 

Sum  Music  Publishing  Co.,  Ltd. 

c- % $ o a » a 


© 


Q 


■•« o o a o a a s«u«y 


!.!• 


A  Dcslan  for  a  Music- cover.    —■ 


[Facing  p.  200. 


LETTERING  FOR  COMMERCIAL  PURPOSES  201 


the  top  of  the  cover,  so  that  it  can  readily  be  seen 
when  the  magazine  is  placed  on  the  bookstall,  and  is 


•O-o 


EBtSKKBBSB£z®£55$. 


ur  ALienucn  * 

fww&wm  wnfTmffBJB'mi  I JM3BB 


Q-..&---#...#--^.. •&.•■&.. -&..■&■>.#•■,#■■■&'■<&■•■& 


A  Dcslatv  for  a  Bookplate^ 

generally   in    that    position    partly    covered    through 
other  magazines  and  books  overlapping  it.     The  great 


202  ILLUMINATION 

thing  to  remember  is  that  the  object  of  each  design 
for  a  magazine  cover  should  be  to  make  it  stand  out 
distinct  from  all  the  other  magazines  on  the  stall,  so 
that  it  can  be  recognised  in  an  instant. 

One  important  piece  of  advice  in  this  kind  of  work 
is  to  avoid  making  the  lettering  look  freakish  by 
forming  some  of  the  letters  quite  tiny  and  others  ex- 
cessively large  in  the  same  word.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  prominent  signs  of  the  amateur. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

HAND-WRITTEN   POSTERS,    ETC. 

It  is  very  useful  at  times  to  be  able  to  produce  quickly 
a  hand-written  poster.  It  is  not  always  desirable  to 
have  printed  ones,  especially  when  one  or  two  copies 
are  all  that  are  required,  and  a  hand-written  poster 
can  be  very  effective  even  if  it  is  produced  hurriedly. 
It  is,  however,  very  essential  that  these  should  be 
written  as  quickly  as  possible,  as  the  price  that  the 
writer  would  have  to  charge  for  a  poster  that  he  had 
spent  a  whole  day  in  writing  would  make  it  quite 
prohibitive.  Therefore  speed  of  production  is  an 
important  factor  that  must  be  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  the  hand-written  poster. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  a  poster  must  attract 
attention.  Unless  there  is  something  arresting  about 
it,  comparatively  few  people  will  stop  and  read  it, 
however  well  it  may  be  written.  Of  course  all  posters 
do  not  depend  upon  the  lettering  alone  to  attract,  but 
in  any  case  the  lettering  should  be  distinct  and  promi- 
nent. However,  the  type  of  poster  described  here  is 
composed  of  lettering  alone,  and  so  depends  entirely 
on  the  display  of  this  to  catch  the  eye. 

A  poster  that  is  written  comparatively  badly  may 

attract  attention  much  more  than  one  that  is  written 

203 


CountrvDespateh  Card. 

IMPORTANT 

*    TO   + 
CUSTOMERS 


/* 


he  object  of  this  Card  is  to  ensure  prompt 
despatch  ofvour  purchases  complete  in. 
one  consignment.  To  prevent  mistakes 
this  Card  must  be  signed  t?y  each  Assist- 
ant from  whom  purchases  are  made  ♦ 

Customers  purchasing  ^oods  for  more 
than  one  address  should  have  a  Carcb 
for  each  consigmnenr  *    *    ♦    ♦    <• 

(ustomers  are  respectfully  recpestecLo 
upon  completum  of  their  purchases 
to  leave  this  Card  in  the  last  depart- 
ment where  a  purchase  is  made  *  * 

60  Departments 

MARSHALL  57  SN6L6ROV6  U 

Vere  Street  and  Oxford  Street, 
London,  °W. 

An  Attractive  Piece  of  Lettering. 

By  kind  permission  oj 

Messrs.  Marshall  &>  Snelgrove,  Ltd. 

204 


HAND-WRITTEN   POSTERS,   ETC.        205 

well  but  without  any  display,  because  the  badly-written 
poster  may  have  something  striking  about  it  that  com- 
pels attention.  The  thing  to  aim  at  is  to  make  the 
poster  prominent  without  annoying  people  by  offending 
their  artistic  susceptibilities. 


Fig.  39. 

The  following  is  a  good  method  of  quickly  writing 
a  poster.  A  sheet  of  paper  is  ruled,  in  the  manner 
shown  in  Fig.  39,  with  a  soft  black-lead  pencil.  The 
lines  should  be  ruled  lightly  and  fairly  closely  together. 
If  the  poster  is  to  be  written  on  thin  paper,  it  is  not  a 
bad  plan  to  rule  these  lines  boldly  in  ink  on  another 
sheet,  so  that  if  this  is  placed  under  the  paper  upon 

0 


2o6  ILLUMINATION 

which  the  poster  is  to  be  written  these  lines  will  show 
through  quite  plainly  enough  to  act  as  a  guide  to  the 
writer.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  have  a  number  of  sheets 
of  various  sizes  ruled  out,  so  that  when  a  poster  is 
required  of  a  given  size  one  of  these  can  be  utilised 
and  the  poster  written  quickly. 

The  lettering  may  be  roughly  sketched  in  either 
with  a  soft  black-lead  pencil  or  a  piece  of  charcoal. 
It  may  then  be  written  straight  away  with  the  pen  or 
brush.  When  the  lettering  is  quite  dry  the  pencil- 
marks  may  be  cleaned  off  with  bread  or  soft  rubber,  or 
if  charcoal  has  been  used  this  may  be  dusted  off  quite 
easily ;    the  poster  is  then  complete. 

As  is  plainly  obvious,  the  poster  shown  in  Fig.  40 
is  produced  by  means  of  the  pen.  The  best  type  of 
pen  for  poster-writing  is  undoubtedly  the  reed  pen, 
especially  if  the  writing  is  needed  to  be  fairly  large. 
When  this  form  of  pen  is  used  it  is  advisable  to  cut 
it  with  a  fairly  long  slit ;  this  will  ensure  the  pen 
working  much  easier. 

When  writing  with  black  and  red  inks,  one  pen 
should  be  kept  for  black  and  the  other  for  red.  If 
this  is  not  done,  the  pen  should  be  carefully  washed 
after  it  has  been  used  for  black  ink  before  using  red 
ink,  otherwise  the  black  left  in  the  pen  will  mix 
with  the  red  and  make  the  colour  dirty.  Undoubtedly 
the  best  way  is,  as  already  mentioned,  to  use  a  separate 
pen  for  each  colour. 

As  most  posters  have  to  be  exposed  to  the  weather 
it  is  well  to  use  only  fixed  inks.  Fixed  inks  are  gener- 
ally prepared  by  being  mixed  with  shellac  which  is 


CONCERT 

will  he  hxul  itv  tkc 

TOWN  HALL 

Wednesday,  June  24  th. 

Doors  open  at  Z  <50ya  m . 

.ft  yur 

zo  commence  at: 


Op. 


m. 


PROCEEDS  IN  AID 
OF  THE  HOSPITAL. 

>:—•:—♦:—•:—•:—•: — ♦:—  •!— >— *—>—>— :—:•—> 

Fig.  40. 


207 


208  ILLUMINATION 

dissolved  in  a  solution  of  borax.  Ordinary  water- 
colours  may,  however,  be  made  waterproof  quite  easily 
by  the  following  method.  A  saturated  solution  is 
made  of  some  bichromate  of  potash,  and  a  few  drops  of 
this  solution  are  added  to  the  colour  just  before  using 
it.  As  this  chemical  makes  a  bright  orange  solution 
it  will  alter  some  colours  slightly,  but  for  blacks  and 
reds  it  will  not  be  noticeable.  This  chemical  has  the 
property  of  making  glue,  size,  or  gum  insoluble  when 
it  is  mixed  with  them,  after  exposure  to  the  light,  and, 
as  water-colours  are  mixed  with  gum,  it  has  the  same 
effect  in  this  case.  If,  therefore,  the  poster  be  exposed 
to  the  light  of  the  sun  for  a  short  period  after  it  has 
been  written,  the  colour  quickly  becomes  insoluble 
and  therefore  waterproof.  The  best  way  is  to  mix  as 
much  colour  as  will  be  required  in  a  small  saucer, 
adding  the  bichromate  solution.  It  is  quite  easy  to 
understand  that  if  anv  of  this  colour  dries  in  the  saucer 
it  will  have  to  be  thrown  away,  as  the  light  quickly 
affects  it  when  dry  and  it  will  be  quite  useless  owing  to 
its  insolubility.  Possibly  it  will  be  noticed  that  a 
yellow  stain  will  show  on  the  back  of  the  poster  when 
the  bichromate  has  penetrated.  As,  however,  in  this 
case  one  side  only  of  the  paper  is  used,  this  will  not 
matter  in  the  least. 

Larger  posters  may  be  written  with  the  brush 
(see  Fig.  41),  or  partly  with  the  pen  and  partly  with  the 
brush.  A  brush  that  is  very  suitable  for  quick  writing 
is  a  Japanese  brush  like  the  one  illustrated  in  Fig.  41. 
This  can  be  used  almost  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
pen,  and  it  is  possible  to  write  very  quickly  with  it. 


CONCERT 

will  be  kctd  in  tfic 

TOWN  HALL 

on 
Wedncsdfflj  u  June  %£ fcK. 

Doors  oven  <tt  7,  30 p,  m . 
To  commence  atr 

8p,m- 

PROCEEDS  IN  AID 
OF  THE  HOSPITAL. 


Mill  i i.i't-i. 


Japanese  Brxi&h.. 

Fig.  41. 


209 


I 


m  4»  *»  m  m 


TH€  CHINTZ, 
LUNCHEON  HOOMS. 


♦ 


COUP 

0  lEiclOxlEil. 
ElSH 

1  Fried  Sole  . . . 
Fillet ofVla'ux 


* 


..  61 


X'6 

l'3 


^  x  Sao  Cutlet 9d. 

x  Chicken  Cadet V~ 

Jiam  Omelet .  ...  1^6 
Cheese  Omelet. ...  7^6 
Savounj  Omelet. . .  lf6 

Poached  6(Kis ^3 

Scrambleaoms . .  .  V~b 

Mutton  Cadets P9 

Devilled  Chicken  . .  2/~ 
x  Carrie.  Madras  . .  Af6 
bmtscd<lonQuc  and 
Svinachlf6 


x 

X     ... 

X 


x^t 


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♦ 


r>o\sr 

i^xMntton f;3 

x&zf. V3 


x ... 
x_ 


X..... 


(^KILL  1 15 Min.J 

^  Fillet  of  Beef V6 

Mutton  Chop V6 

IliukCadet P6 


^ xjicm^ldvaue f/3 

xFowl V611- 

xRoastBeef lf3 

xRoastXfutton  .  .  .  .  /73 
*\7EGETABL€S 

▼     Tbtatocs 4d. 

Svinach Ad 


Potato  Salad 
Mixed  Salad 


Ad. 
.6d. 


ese  art  rta 


Design  fo 


By  hind  permission 
of  Messrs.  Marshall 
gf  Snclgrove,    Ltd. 


2?0 


«  «  «>  ■*•  rs 


CWEET5 

^  x  Caramf/  Piichl'irur.  .  6d. 

x Apple %rt.  .  7.  ..6d. 

Sweat  Omelet.  .  .  .US 


x Cream  Me 


6<L 


x^ream  Mennque . 
x  Truit  Salad  and ... 

.  ."Devonshire  Cream  id. 
x  Teach  and  Cream .  .  id. 

Rice  Tuddina .  .  .  Ad. 


CAVOUFU6S 

O  Sardines  on  c!bast . 
Scotch  Woodcock, . 
bombanc(oast  .  . 
Ham  toast.  .  .  . 
cIonqucc[oast.  .  . 


V- 
V- 
V- 

V- 
V- 


I>€V6RAG€S • 

V    %i  [China  or  Ceuhnj  6d. 

Coffee 6d. 

Chocolate 6d. 

Cocoa 6d 

Lemon  Squash  .  .  .6d. 
GuiqcrBecr,GiiwcrAlc/ld. 
ttoiiickteaka$M\lk  6d 

s-/    Sandwdies.  .  ,  .  .2d. 

Biscuits 3d. 

Roll  and  Butter.  .  .2d. 
Cheese  .  .  .  .  .  .2d. 

DadiBun 2d. 

CrtamBim  .  .  .  .3d 
Vastrics 3d. 


X\BLE  D 'HOTEL  LUNCH  3A 

[  Soup,  Fish ,  hint,  Sweet.  J 


\y]e  shall  appreciate  it  ifuou  will  kindhi  refrain  froitL-D 
otferina  a  oratuitv  to  the  waitress. 


•  ••••••••••■"* 


A  Menu. 


211 


212  ILLUMINATION 

For  very  careful  writing  the  best  brush  is  the  kind 
known  as  a  sable  writer.  This  is  a  sable  brush  with 
rather  long  hair.  Practice  is  necessary  before  the 
student  becomes  expert  in  the  use  of  it,  but  it  will  be 
found  that  the  long  sweeping  curves  of  the  round 
letters,  as  also  the  straight  strokes  of  the  other  letters, 
may  be  formed  much  more  easily  with  this  type  of 
brush  than  with  the  ordinary  kind  used  for  painting. 

Writers  are  generally  in  quills,  so  perhaps  a  word 
may  be  useful  here  with  regard  to  the  method  of  fixing 
a  quill  brush  on  a  handle.  It  is  not  wise  to  take  the 
quill  as  it  comes  from  the  shop  and  push  it  on  to  a 
stick.  The  quill  is  very  liable  to  split  if  pushed  on  too 
tightly,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  not  iixed 
securely  it  will  drop  off,  probably  whilst  doing  some 
important  work,  and  will  almost  certainly  spoil  it 
if  it  falls  off  when  well  charged  with  colour. 
The  proper  way  to  fix  a  quill  brush  is,  first  of  all,  to 
soak  the  brush  well  until  the  quill  becomes  quite  soft. 
The  stick  is  then  carefully  tapered  with  a  sharp  knife 
until  it  exactly  fits  the  quill.  Then,  while  the  quill  is 
still  soft,  it  is  carefully  fitted  on  to  the  stick.  The 
result  of  this  method  is  that  when  the  quill  gets  dry 
and  hard  it  will  be  found  to  be  fitted  quite  tightly  on 
to  the  stick,  and  will  certainly  not  fall  off ;  while, 
at  the  same  time,  there  is  no  danger  of  splitting  the 
quill. 

When  writing  posters  in  black  and  red,  the  red 
should  be  used  to  give  emphasis  to  words  that  are 
important.  For  example,  in  the  specimen  shown,  the 
word  "  CONCERT  "  may  be  in  red  ;    also  the  place. 


HAND-WRITTEN   POSTERS,   ETC.       213 

date,  and  time  may  well  be  written  in  this  colour  to 
make  them  more  conspicuous.  A  simple  border  may 
be  added  composed  of  some  slight  decoration  formed 
with  direct  brush  strokes  if  so  desired.  This  may  be 
either  in  one  or  two  colours. 


GoodVaius, 


v. 


IKc-  Latest  trcskiort. 


it 


DlSTINCTIVe. 


Gp©d  WorkitKxasKip 
ElK  C[uaraxv£cccL.  ^s^ 


1  *  •  •  • 


•  •  •  »  t™  1 


Price  5/- 


[ualitv 

the  Bcstr: 


Fig.  42. 


Large  notices  that  are  required  to  be  lasting  may 
be  written  on  canvas,  using  oil-colours. 

Some  examples  of  window-tickets  are  shown  in 
Fig.  42.  These  may  be  written  with  the  quill  pen. 
The  use  of  black  and  red  is  very  effective  for  these,  but 
any  colours  may  be  used.  It  might  be  a  good  idea  to 
write  a  quantity   of  tickets    according   to   a   special 


Fig.  43. 


?;f 


HAND-WRITTEN   POSTERS,  ETC.  215 

colour  scheme  for  a  particular  window  display.  This, 
however,  could  best  be  done  by  working  in  conjunction 
with  the  one  who  is  responsible  for  dressing  the  window. 
Some  tickets  might  be  written  in  white  on  a  dark 
background.  It  will  be  found  that,  for  use  in  the  pen, 
colours  that  have  been  mixed  with  gum  and  water 
without  any  addition  of  honey  or  glycerine  will  flow 
much  better  than  ordinary  water-colours.  When  these 
are  used  they  tend  to  clog  the  pen.  There  is  no 
necessity  in  this  case  to  fix  the  colours  as  they  will 
not  be  exposed  to  the  weather,  so  therefore  will  not 
need  to  be  waterproof. 

If  the  student  has  become  familiar  with  the  use  of 
the  quill  pen  he  should  be  able  to  write  these  fairly 
quickly  and  therefore  cheaply.  The  use  of  simple 
decoration  formed  with  the  same  pen  that  the  letter- 
ing has  been  done  with  may  be  employed,  but  this 
should  not  be  overdone. 

In  Fig.  43  an  example  is  given  of  a  show-card  that 
has  been  written  with  the  pen  in  a  simple,  straight- 
forward fashion.  A  simple  border  has  been  added 
which  may  be  quickly  and  easily  formed  with  the  pen 
or  brush.  For  writing  small  show-cards  the  quill  pen 
may  be  used,  but  for  larger  ones  the  reed  pen  will  be 
more  serviceable. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

THE   ILLUMINATED   MS.    BOOK 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  illuminated  MS.  book  occupied 
a  very  prominent  position.  The  printing-press  was 
not  then  in  existence,  so  the  manuscript  book  was 
without  a  rival.  To-day  the  printing-press  is  to  the 
forefront  and  the  manuscript  book  is  practically  un- 
heard of.  There  is,  nevertheless,  no  reason  why  the 
art  of  illumination  should  not  be  practised  in  the  same 
manner  as  was  formerly  the  case.  It  is  true  that 
beautiful  books  are  produced  by  the  printer,  but  there 
ought  also  to  be  a  demand  for  books  beautiful,  written 
and  illuminated  by  artists  of  the  present  day.  An 
illuminated  manuscript  has  many  advantages  over 
the  printed  book,  one  of  which  is  the  fact  that  it  is 
unique  instead  of  being  one  of  many.  There  is  no 
need  to  enumerate  the  many  other  advantages  that 
the  manuscript  book  possesses. 

The  best  material  upon  which  to  write  a  manuscript 
book  is  undoubtedly  vellum,  although  fine  hand-made 
paper  may  be  substituted  if  it  is  not  desirable  to  go  to 
the  expense  of  procuring  vellum  for  this  purpose.  A 
paper  that  is  soft  and  flexible  should  be  selected  in 
preference  to  one  that  is  hard  and  stiff.     Anything 

approaching  cardboard  should  be  avoided. 

216 


Froxtisimi  Illuminated  MS.  of  Blake's  "  Songs  of  [nnocence.' 

SIDNEY     FARNSWORTH. 


216. 


THE   ILLUMINATED  MS.   BOOK         217 

The  first  thing  to  decide  in  writing  a  manuscript 
book  is  the  size  of  the  page.  After  this  is  settled,  the 
size  of  the  lettering  should  be  taken  into  consideration. 
If  the  manuscript  is  to  be  on  vellum  this  should  be 
bought  ready  cut  to  the  size  required.  It  is  much 
cheaper  to  buy  vellum  in  this  way  than  to  buy  the 
skin  and  cut  it  for  oneself.  The  reason  for  this  is  because 
the  manufacturer  can  cut  up  a  more  or  less  imperfect 
skin  into  small  pieces,  but  when  a  whole  skin  is  required 
this  must  be  perfect  in  every  respect. 

The  best  vellum  for  manuscript  books  is  the  kind 
known  as  Roman  vellum,  a  very  soft  and  flexible  kind 
of  vellum.  For  title-pages,  and  any  other  pages 
which  are  likely  to  be  covered  with  elaborate  work,  a 
slightly  heavier  vellum  may  be  advisable. 

For  general  purposes  a  good  size  for  the  page  is 
10  in.  by  jh  in.,  i.e.,  the  vellum  sheets  should  be  cut 
10  in.  by  15  in.  It  is  as  well  to  leave  a  slight  margin 
for  drawing-pins  in  addition  to  this.  One  of  these 
sheets  should  be  ruled  out,  as  shown  in  (a),  Fig.  44, 
with  a  sharply-pointed  H.B.  pencil.  The  lines  should 
be  ruled  very  lightly  so  that  they  may  be  erased  with 
the  slightest  possible  touch  of  the  rubber.  After  one 
sheet  has  been  carefully  ruled  out  in  this  manner,  the 
others  can  be  marked  out  in  a  similar  fashion  by 
pricking  through. 

Manuscript  books  are  generally  written  in  eight- 
page  sections,  formed  by  folding  one  sheet  within  the 
other,  as  in  (b). 

The  proportion  of  the  margins  may  vary  according 
to  circumstances,  but  it  is  best  to  make  them  fairly 


2l8 


ILLUMINATION 


wide.  The  inside  margin  is  made  smaller  than  the 
outside  one,  because  the  two  inner  margins  come 
together,  thus  forming  a  wide  margin  between  the  two 
pages  of  lettering.  It  should,  however,  be  made 
wider  than  half  the  size  of  the  outside  margin,  to  allow 
for  the  folding  of  the  leaves  when  the  book  is  bound. 
A  good  arrangement  for  the  commencement  of  a  MS. 
book  is  shown  in  Fig.  44  (b),  (c),  or  (d).     The  title  is 


f 

a. 

* 

s 

P 

2 

T 

Fig.  44. 


written  on  page  1.  Pages  2  and  3  are  blanks.  The 
frontispiece  and  title-page  occupy  pages  4  and  5. 
Page  6  is  another  blank,  and  the  manuscript  starts  on 
page  7.  The  title  may  be  written  simply  in  red,  or 
red  and  black.  This  should  not  be  written  quite  in 
the  centre  of  the  page,  a  larger  space  should  be  left 
at  the  bottom,  as  if  this  is  equal  with  the  top  it  will  look 
as  if  a  larger  space  had  been  left  at  the  top. 

For  the    frontispiece  a    miniature    may  be  used, 
illustrating  some  passage  in  the  book  ;   or  a  coat-of- 


Title  Page  of   Illuminated  MS.  of  Blake's  "Songs  of  Innocence.' 

BY    SIDNEY    FARNSWORTH, 


Facing  p.  219. 


THE  ILLUMINATED  MS.   BOOK  219 

arms  or  some  symbol  may  be  worked  in  surrounded 
by  decoration.  The  title-page  should  have  the  title 
and  the  author's  name,  but  the  artist  should  not  put 
his  name  here.  When  he  has  finished  the  MS.  he  may 
write  at  the  end  a  colophon,  stating  his  name,  and  when 
and  where  the  book  was  written.  It  is  best  when 
writing  out  the  manuscript  to  leave  the  title-page 
and  frontispiece  until  the  rest  of  the  matter  has  been 
written. 

No  elaborate  planning  of  pages  is  necessary.  A 
good  number  of  pages  should  be  ruled  out  with  lines 
ready  for  writing,  and  the  manuscript  should  be  written 
straight  away  with  the  quill  pen.  Spaces  are  left  for 
initial  letters,  miniatures,  etc.,  as  the  writer  feels  they 
are  fitting  and  necessary.  The  student  should  be  very 
careful  to  write  out  the  pages  in  the  proper  order,  as 
it  is  very  easy  to  make  mistakes  by  writing  on  the 
wrong  pages.  For  example,  if  he  is  not  careful  he 
is  very  liable,  after  having  written  the  second  page  of 
a  section,  to  go  on  writing  on  page  7,  instead  of  page 
3,  which  is  on  another  sheet  of  vellum  folded  inside  the 
first.  A  good  method  for  avoiding  this  is  to  number 
the  pages  lightly  in  pencil  with  large  figures  at  the 
head  of  each  page. 

When  writing  out  the  words,  the  vellum  should  be 
fastened  to  the  drawing-board  with  drawing-pins,  a 
pad  formed  with  several  sheets  of  blotting-paper  being 
placed  under  the  vellum  to  ensure  easy  writing.  If 
possible,  place  the  copy  just  above  the  writing  level, 
where  it  can  easily  be  seen. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  find  out  how  many  pages  the 


220  ILLUMINATION 

manuscript  is  likely  to  run  into,  a  rough  calculation 
can  easily  be  made  by  ruling  out  a  sheet  of  paper  and 
lightly  pencilling  in  a  page  of  the  writing.  It  will  then 
be  an  easy  matter  to  count  up  the  number  of  words  to 
form  an  estimate  of  the  number  of  pages  required. 

The  student  should  always,  before  commencing  to 
write,  read  through  the  matter  and  decide  what  initials 
he  will  have,  also  whether  he  will  have  any  miniatures, 
etc.  In  fact,  he  ought  to  be  able,  before  he  commences 
work,  to  visualise  the  whole  of  the  manuscript  com- 
pleted. If  his  mental  image  of  the  finished  book  is  a 
grand  one  he  will  be  inspired  to  do  his  utmost  to 
make  the  actual  one  as  much  like  the  one  in  his  imagina- 
tion as  possible. 

After  the  writing  has  been  done,  the  initial  letters, 
borders,  etc.,  may  be  drawn  lightly  with  pencil. 
After  this,  the  next  stage  is  the  gilding.  Before  this 
is  done,  however,  the  vellum  should  be  carefully 
fastened  tightly  to  the  drawing-board  with  a  large 
number  of  drawing-pins  to   prevent  it  from  cockling. 

When  the  gold  has  been  laid  and  burnished,  the 
colouring  is  proceeded  with,  and  the  page  is  finished. 

The  colophon  is  written  at  the  end,  a  blank  page 
being  left  between  it  and  the  last  page  of  writing. 
This  should  be  in  quite  simple  lettering  without  any 
ostentatious  show  of  decoration.     The  wording  may 

be  as  follows  :   "  This  book,  written  out  by  me in 

,  for ,  was  finished  on  the day  of , 

Anno  Domini,  19 — ." 

Of  course,  there  is  no  need  to  word  the  colophon 
always    in    this    manner.      This    is    merely    a    form 


THE   ILLUMINATED   MS.   BOOK         ttl 

suggested.  In  the  case  of  a  book  where  several  have 
taken  part  in  the  work,  mention  should  be  made  of 
this.  It  is  not  a  bad  plan  also  to  include  the  name  of 
the  binder,  in  the  event  of  the  book  being  bound  by 
a  good  craftsman.  Some  examples  of  colophons  are 
shown  in  Fig.  45. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  make  all  the  pages  elaborate  in 
style;  in  fact  it  is  best  to  make  the  majority  of  them 

{C\TXS  BOOK,       foRI5  BOOK< I 

V/  wr  tttctv  our  and.  ^J  u?kick~  was  onittav 

•ft  __  j     1  (  out>  aruL  ilJLuxnxnaCcd, act 

£™^  H  «**.  tkc  IMJuur  of  Robe*! 

£>ulnxu  Fecrtxsworth,,}  Jbk*v  SmitrL  btj   tnc,    j 

itv  CMjclmSiorcL ;  ror    j  &idtve*j  Fctmsujorttv,  in, 

Joatu*  Brown..  loots  !  CKeWford,  coots'  comr 

finiskedl  oa  the  fiftkl  fe     „^ 

4  c  f  1  cuxu  or    daxuxecru ,      ! 

dxaj  of-    Febroocrij,    !  -i-Atmo  Domini,,  * 

.Anno  Domini,  ^9.^ 


1918 


* 


Fig.  45. 


quite  simple  in  treatment,  with  here  and  there  one 
that  is  more  ornate  in  character. 

The  writing  is  the  principal  thing  in  the  book, 
therefore  nothing  must  be  added  that  will  in  any  way 
detract  from  this.  If  the  addition  of  decoration  has 
this  effect  it  would  be  much  better  to  leave  the  writing 
quite  plain.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  rules 
to  govern  the  use  of  decoration  in  the  manuscript 
book.     It  is  largely  a  matter  of  feeling  one's  way.     If 


222  ILLUMINATION 

the  decoration  is  well-considered  and  suited  to  the 
words  it  will  help,  rather  than  detract  from,  the 
lettering. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  primary  object 
of  a  book  is  to  be  read.  If  the  book  fails  in  this  respect, 
it  will  also  most  certainly  fail  from  the  standpoint  of 
beauty.  One  of  the  first  essentials  of  anything  that 
lays  claim  to  beauty  is  that  it  shall  serve  its  purpose. 
Therefore  care  should  be  taken  that  nothing  be  done 
that  will,  in  any  way,  tend  to  make  the  book  less 
readable. 

The  decoration  should  be  strongly  influenced  by 
the  subject-matter  of  the  book.  Some  illuminators 
appear  to  have  one  idea  only  with  regard  to  illumina- 
tion. No  matter  what  the  words  are,  the  same  kind 
of  decoration  is  used.  They  seem  to  make  no  distinc- 
tion whether  the  subject  is  a  mediaeval  romance  or 
something  quite  modern.  This  is  a  great  mistake, 
and  shows  a  lack  of  thought  and  imagination  on 
the  part  of  the  artist.  The  ideas  expressed  in  the 
words  should  also  be  felt  in  the  decoration  ;  in  fact,  the 
book  when  completed  should  form  one  harmonious 
whole. 

When  miniatures  are  introduced  these  also  should 
harmonise  with  the  decoration.  It  is  not  advisable 
to  make  these  resemble  small  water-colour  paintings 
that  have  no  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  ornament. 
On  the  other  hand,  these  should  not  be  drawn  in  too 
conventional  a  manner.  They  should  be  essentially 
decorative  in  treatment,  and  careful  study  from  nature 
should  prevent  the  student  from  making  these  too  hard 


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THE   ILLUMINATED   MS.   BOOK         223 

and  rigid  in  character.  Complete  unity  should  run 
throughout  all  the  work. 

Even  in  the  writing  itself  it  is  possible  to  express 
something.  For  example,  some  prose  looks  best  if 
written  with  a  fairly  heavy  massed  writing,  whilst 
other  of  a  lighter  character  seems  to  be  best  if  written 
with  the  lettering  less  heavy  and  more  loosely  arranged. 
Poetry  generally  seems  to  require  to  be  written  with  a 
lighter  type  of  letter  and  with  the  lines  of  lettering 
wider  apart.  It  is,  however,  not  wise  to  lay  down  hard 
and  fast  rules  with  regard  to  this  :  one  should  be  able 
to  feel  what  is  the  best  thing  to  do. 

When  writing  the  MS.,  and,  indeed,  right  through 
every  stage,  absolute  quiet  is  necessary  to  concentrate 
one's  mind  on  the  work.  One  should  endeavour  to 
give  it  one's  undivided  attention. 

A  test  as  to  whether  an  artist  has  succeeded  is 
to  observe,  when  the  book  is  shown  to  anyone,  whether 
the  words  are  noticed  at  all,  or  if  the  decoration  only  is 
admired  without  any  apprehension  as  to  what  the  words 
are  about.  If  the  latter  is  the  case,  then,  to  some  extent, 
the  artist  has  failed.  A  manuscript  that  has  been 
illuminated  in  the  right  spirit  should  enable  the  reader 
to  understand  and  appreciate  the  words  better. 

After  the  MS.  is  completed  it  should  be  carefully 
bound  by  an  experienced  binder.  It  is  as  well  to  choose 
a  good  craftsman  for  this  purpose,  and  one  who  has 
had  some  experience  in  binding  manuscripts  containing 
raised  gold,  as  it  is  very  easy  for  a  binder  to  spoil  the 
manuscript  if  he  is  not  accustomed  to  handling 
work  of   this  kind.       To   make    the   whole  thing  a 


224  ILLUMINATION 

success  it  is  necessary  that  the   binder  should  be  an 
artist  as  well  as  the  illuminator. 

A  simple  method  of  binding  MSS.  in  limp  vellum, 
without  special  appliances,  is  described  in  the  next 
chapter. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

A   SIMPLE   METHOD   OF   BINDING   MSS. 

The  method  of  binding  described  in  this  chapter  is 
not  intended  to  take  the  place  of  proper  binding  in 
leather.  However,  it  is  sometimes  useful  to  be  able  to 
put  the  MS.  in  a  cover  when  it  is  not  desirable  or 
convenient  to  go  to  the  expense  of  having  the  book 
bound  in  the  usual  way.  Binding  with  stiff  boards  is 
an  art  that  requires  considerable  experience  as  well  as 
skilled  training,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  MSS. 
should  not  be  bound  in  limp  vellum  in  the  manner 
described  here.  No  special  appliances  are  needed  for 
this  method,  and  the  writer  should  be  able  to  complete 
his  MSS.  by  binding  them  without  any  difficulty  if  the 
directions  given  here  are  carefully  followed. 

Two  additional  sections  of  plain  paper  or  vellum 
should  be  made,  to  serve  as  end-papers,  one  at  each 
end  of  the  book.  If  the  MS.  is  on  vellum,  the  end- 
papers should  be  of  the  same  material,  but  if  on  paper 
the  end-papers  should  be  made  of  paper  of  the  same 
kind  as  that  used  for  the  rest  of  the  book. 

Four  strips  of  binder's  vellum  should  then  be  cut, 
these  being  about  f  in.  wide  and  four  inches  long. 
The  sections  should  be  knocked  up  quite  squarely, 

and  should  be  marked  on  the  back  with  a  soft  black 

225 


226 


ILLUMINATION 


lead  pencil  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  46,  using  a 
square  to  get  the  lines  accurate.  The  sections  should 
all  be  marked  quite  distinctly  so  that  each  section 
shows  the  divisions  quite  plainly.  This  gives  the 
position  of  the  four  strips  of  vellum  and  the  kettle- 
stitches  at  each  end.  The  mark  for  the  kettle-stitch 
should  be  about  \  in.  from  each  end,  although  some- 
times at  the  bottom  a  little  more  than  this  is  allowed. 
The  position  of  the  vellum  strips  should  be  in  the  same 
proportion  as  given  in  Fig.  46. 


By  t-f-H—f- 


3S=s~s 


S 


iem, 


H<nw  to  mask.  back,  of  £*ctisn2.. 
Mctkod.  of  stitckina: 


Linking  up 


Fig.  46. 


When  ready  to  sew  the  sections,  take  the  four 
vellum  strips  and  fold  each  one  about  i\  in.  or  if  in. 
at  right  angles  from  each  end,  according  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  book.  Then  take  a  drawing-board  and 
place  on  the  edge  of  it  the  first  section  face  downwards, 
with  the  four  strips  placed  in  position  with  their 
shorter  ends  underneath.  Get  a  needle,  threaded  with 
good  silk  or  unbleached  thread,  and  insert  it  at  the 
top  kettle-stitch  mark  from  the  outside,  bringing  it  out 
again  at  the  first  mark  for  the  vellum  strip.     Bring 


SIMPLE  METHOD   OF  BINDING  MSS.    227 

the  thread  round  the  strip  and  re-insert  the  needle  on 
the  other  side,  bringing  it  out  again  and  round  the 
next  strip,  and  so  on  until  it  comes  out  at  the  bottom 
kettle-stitch.  When  this  is  done  it  should  have  the 
effect,  shown  in  Fig.  46,  of  a  continuous  thread  passing 
in  and  out  and  round  the  vellum  strips.  Now  take 
the  next  section  and  place  it  in  position  and  sew  in 
the  same  manner,  continuing  with  the  same  thread  but 
in  the  reverse  manner.  Upon  coming  to  the  loose  end, 
where  the  needle  was  first  inserted,  this  should  be  tied 
up  with  it.  Then  add  another  section,  going  back- 
wards and  forwards,  adding  section  by  section  until 
the  whole  is  completed.  Each  kettle-stitch  is  linked 
up  as  shown  in  Fig.  46,  and  it  is  a  good  plan  also  to 
link  up  the  threads  that  cross  over  the  vellum  strips 
in  the  same  manner. 

To  keep  the  sections  in  position  while  stitching, 
a  small  paper-weight  is  useful.  The  thread  should  be 
drawn  fairly  tightly,  a  fresh  needleful  of  thread  being 
tied  on  to  the  end  of  the  other  when  it  is  exhausted, 
and  when  the  stitching  is  completed  the  end  should  be 
carefully  tied  up  with  the  last  kettle-stitch.  The 
back  may  then  be  covered  with  thin  glue  and  lined 
with  a  piece  of  thin  leather  or  tough  paper,  and  the  MS. 
is  then  ready  for  covering.     (See  Fig.  49.) 

A  piece  of  binding  vellum  is  cut  for  the  cover  and 
marked  with  a  folder  on  the  underside,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  47.  The  two  lines  marked  down  the  centre 
represent  the  thickness  of  the  sections.  The  two 
spaces  on  either  side,  exclusive  of  margins,  should  be 
slightly  larger  than  the  size  of  the  sides  of  the  book. 


228 


ILLUMINATION 


The  wide  margin  that  extends  all  the  way  round  may 
be  approximately  ij  in.,  while  the  additional  narrow 
margin  on  two  sides  may  be  J  in.  in  width.  The 
corners  should  be  cut  along  the  dotted  lines  with  a 
sharp  knife. 

The  cover  is  then  folded  up  in  the  manner  shown  in 
Fig.  48.     It  is  as  well  to  stick  the  edges  down  with  a 


f 

9 
• 

9 
9 

V 

• 

Vellum 

(Zovcr. 

9 

* 

* 

Fig.  47. 


little  stiff  quick-drying  paste.  The  two  narrow  margins 
should  be  marked  with  the  folder  and  folded  over  to 
form  two  flaps  on  the  fore-edge  of  the  book.  All  these 
folds  should  be  made  very  carefully  so  as  to  ensure 
them  being  quite  even.  Some  people  find  it  best  to 
make  a  cover  of  stiff  paper  first,  and,  when  this  fits 
correctly,  they  make  the  vellum  cover  exactly  the 
same  size.     It  is  possible  by  this  method  to  avoid 


SIMPLE  METHOD   OF   BINDING  MSS.    229 

spoiling  the  vellum  through  cutting  it  so  that  it  does 
not  fit. 

The  next  thing  to  do  is  to  mark  the  places  on  the 
inside  of  the  cover  for  the  vellum  strips  to  be  laced 
through.  These  should  be  made  about  §  in.  from  the 
creases  of  the  back.  Another  mark  should  be  made 
about  §  in.  away  from  the  first  mark.     If  the  book  is 


:      ; 


Ccvcr  roxdu  for  binding  the  MS. 

Fig.  48. 

now  placed  in  the  cover  it  will  be  quite  an  easy  matter 
to  mark  exactly  where  the  vellum  strips  intersect  these 
lines,  and  slits  may  be  cut  with  a  sharp  knife  in  the 
cover  in  the  places  marked  with  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  48. 
The  vellum  strips  may  now  be  laced  through 
these  slits  and  the  ends  stuck  down  with  strong 
paste.  Some  pieces  of  good  silk  ribbon  may  be  attached 
to  the  top  and  bottom  strips  and  laced  through  the 


230 


ILLUMINATION 


cover,  leaving  the  ends  to  tie,  or  the  book  may  be  left 
without  these. 

The  two  outside  end-papers  may  then  be  pasted 
down  on  to  the  inside  of  the  vellum  cover.  This  will 
cover  up  the  ends  of  the  vellum  strips.  It  is,  however, 
essential  that  for  all  this  a  quick-drying  paste  should 
be  used  and  not  one  that  is  very  liquid,  as  this  would 
quickly  strike  through  and  cockle  the  vellum.  The 
end-papers  should  be  pasted  down  very  neatly  and 
then  the  book  should  be  placed  under  pressure  until  it 
is  quite  dry.  One  or  two  heavy  books  make  a  very 
good  press  for  this  purpose. 


MS.  rccttltj  for  insertion, 
in.  Cover. 


/ 


A    ODe    •*■ 
X30  A 

AJ  niGPjsjnGALe 


By 

*1  clohrt  treats 


Fiaisked  Volume. 
Fig.  49. 


When  the  book  is  quite  dry  the  decoration  of  the 
cover  may  be  proceeded  with.  The  title  may  be  written 
on  it  with  quite  plain  lettering  or  it  may  be  decorated 
in  a  more  elaborate  fashion.     It  is  better  not  to  use 


SIMPLE  METHOD   OF  BINDING  MSS.    231 

raised  gold,  as  it  is  very  liable  to  get  damaged  on  the 
cover  of  the  book.  However,  some  very  good  effects 
can  be  obtained  with  flat  gilding.  The  vellum  strips 
that  are  laced  through  the  cover  offer  scope  for  decora- 
tion. If  it  is  desirable  to  write  the  title  on  the  back  of 
the  book  it  is  better  to  do  this  before  the  book  is  bound, 
as  it  is  rather  a  difficult  matter  to  write  here  when  the 
book  has  been  bound. 

If  it  is  desired  to  do  so,  the  cover  may  be  made  of 
thin  card  or  stout  paper  in  this  way  and  then  have  a 
cover  of  vellum  folded  over  it.  If  this  is  done,  the 
vellum  strips  will,  of  course,  be  covered  up  on  the  out- 
side, as  well  as  the  inside,  of  the  cover. 

Generally  the  books  most  suitable  for  this  style  of 
binding  are  small  ones,  although  larger  MSS.  are  some- 
times bound  in  this  way. 

The  same  remarks  that  were  made  with  regard  to 
the  style  of  decoration  in  the  MS.  itself  apply  equally 
here.  The  subject  of  the  book  must  decide,  to  a  large 
extent,  what  stvle  of  ornament  is  to  be  used.  For 
example,  a  volume  of  modern  poetry  will  require  quite 
different  treatment  to  that  of  a  mediaeval  romance. 

It  ought  to  be  possible  for  the  illuminator  to  make 
some  very  charming  little  volumes  in  this  manner. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE   ILLUMINATION   OF   THE   PRINTED   BOOK 

As  already  mentioned  in  an  earlier  chapter,  some  of 
the  early  printed  books  were  enriched  with  fine  illumin- 
ated initials,  borders,  etc.  These  books  were  printed 
with  spaces  left  for  the  artist  to  insert  these,  and  this 
seems  to  have  often  been  the  custom  during  the  early 
days  of  printing. 

There  ought  to  be  a  demand  for  books  produced 
in  this  manner  in  the  present  day,  and  the  modern 
illuminator  should  be  able  to  do  good  work  in  this 
way. 

When  it  is  intended  to  apply  illumination  to  the 
printed  book,  it  is  well  that  the  book  selected  should 
be  worthy  of  being  illuminated,  both  with  regard  to 
subject-matter  and  also  the  way  in  which  it  is  printed. 
It  should  be  beautifully  printed  on  good  paper.  Some 
choice  editions  have  been  printed  on  vellum,  but 
these  are  few  and  far  between.  However,  if  possible, 
the  book  selected  should  be  printed  on  good  hand- 
made paper.  The  illuminator  should  carefully  avoid 
so-called  "  art  "  papers,  which  have  a  clay  surface  and 
are  by  no  means  durable,  besides  being  far  from  ideal 

for  working  upon.     The  book  should  be  printed  from 

232 


ILLUMINATION   OF  THE   PRINTED   BOOK  233 

good  type,  with  nice  wide  margins  so  as  to  leave  plenty 
of  scope  for  decoration. 

Illuminating  a  book  after  it  has  been  bound  is  a 
rather  difficult  matter,  so  it  is  better  to  procure  the 
sheets,  if  possible,  before  they  have  been  bound.  It  is 
much  more  convenient  to  work  upon  them  when  they 
are  unbound,  as  each  page  in  turn  can  be  fastened  to 
the  drawing-board  in  the  usual  way.     A  good  edition 


Fig.  50. 


of  any  book  can  generally  be  obtained  from  the  pub- 
lishers in  sheets  if  application  is  made.  In  the  case 
where  it  is  possible  only  to  work  on  the  book  after  it 
has  been  bound,  it  is  best  to  tie  the  pages  back  with  a 
piece  of  narrow  tape  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  50. 
A  piece  of  stout  cardboard  is  placed  at  the  back  of  the 
book,  and  the  book  is  tied  to  this  by  means  of  the 
tapes.     This  not  only  prevents  the  pages  from  turning 


234  ILLUMINATION 

over,  but  also  precludes  the  possibility  of  the  book 
accidentally  closing. 

One  thing  is  extremely  important  in  connection 
with  the  illumination  of  the  printed  book,  and  that  is 
that  the  decoration  should  be  in  keeping  with  the 
modern  type  used  in  printing.  The  book  should  not 
look  as  if  the  text  ought  to  be  written  in  Gothic  script. 
The  illuminator  must  endeavour  to  preserve  a  feeling 
of  unity  about  the  book.  If  the  book  is  illuminated 
like  a  thirteenth-century  missal,  the  ordinary  Roman 
type  will  look  out  of  place.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
add  that  Gothic  initials  should  not  be  used,  as  they 
would  be  entirely  out  of  keeping  with  the  type.  A  good 
form  of  Roman  capital  may  be  used  instead. 

If  illustrations  in  the  form  of  full-page  plates  form 
part  of  the  book  they  may  be  mounted  on  good  stout 
hand-made  paper  and  have  the  titles  nicely  written 
underneath.  For  writing  the  titles  under  illustra- 
tions a  simple  form  of  Roman  script  should  be  used,  so 
as  to  be  as  much  in  keeping  with  the  type  as  possible. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  add  any  decoration  to  the  page 
on  which  the  illustration  is  mounted.  The  inscrip- 
tion alone  is  sufficient  and  should  be  nicely  written  in 
well-formed  writing. 

For  the  title-page  of  the  book  this  may  either  be 
substituted  by  one  entirely  done  by  hand,  or  the 
printed  one  may  be  slightly  decorated.  It  is  best  not 
to  make  this  too  elaborate,  especially  if  the  printed  one 
is  used.  In  fact  it  may  be  best  to  leave  it  practically 
plain,  but  this  is  a  point  that  must  be  decided  by  one's 
own  good  taste. 


ILLUMINATION  OF  THE  PRINTED  BOOK     235 

The  opening  page  may  be  made  important  by 
using  a  fine  initial  letter.  By  the  use  of  body  colours 
it  is  possible  to  paint  this  in  on  top  of  the  printed 
letter.  The  first  word,  which  is  generally  printed  in 
capitals,  may  also  be  painted  in  the  same  way,  either 
in  gold  or  colours.  The  decoration  should  be  suited 
to  the  subject-matter  of  the  book  and  should  not  be 
carried  to  excess.  It  is  much  better  for  the  decoration 
to  be  somewhat  too  simple  in  character  than  for  it  to 
look  too  ornate  and  crowded. 

The  decoration  should  be  kept  quite  free  in  charac- 
ter and  every  endeavour  should  be  made  to  prevent 
it  from  getting  hard  and  severe.  All  the  poetry  and 
sweetness  possible  should  be  put  into  it. 

Every  page  should  not  be  covered  with  decoration  ; 
this  should  not  be  attempted.  All  the  variety  possible 
should  be  got  by  making  some  pages  quite  simple  in 
treatment,  others  may  be  more  elaborate,  while  some 
may  be  left  quite  plain.  Too  many  heavy  borders 
should  not  be  introduced. 

The  use  of  illuminated  tail-pieces  affords  a  good 
opportunity  for  the  illuminator  to  add  to  the  interest 
of  the  page,  and  there  is  generally  plenty  of  scope  for 
these  at  the  end  of  chapters,  etc. 

Generally  speaking,  the  printed  book  should  not 
be  used  for  illuminating  when  it  is  possible  to  write 
out  the  words,  as  a  manuscript  book  is  certainly  prefer- 
able to  a  printed  one.  But  in  cases  where  a  book  is 
too  long  to  be  written  out,  the  application  of  illumina- 
tion to  typography  is  certainly  a  great  advantage  if 
judiciously  used. 


256  ILLUMINATION 

At  the  end  of  the  book  the  illuminator  may  add  his 
colophon,  stating  that  the  illumination  in  the  book  was 
executed  by  himself,  and  giving  the  date  of  its  com- 
pletion and  other  interesting  details. 

A  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  a  favourite 
poet  is  a  good  example  for  illumination  in  this  manner. 
It  would  take  far  too  much  time,  as  well  as  being  too 
costly,  for  the  modern  illuminator  to  write  out  a  large 
volume  of  poetry,  but  it  might  be  nicely  printed  and 
illuminated  in  this  way.  By  these  means  a  beautiful 
book  might  be  produced  that  ought  to  appeal  to  the 
lover  of  choice  books. 

Doubtless  there  will  be  many  books  that  will 
suggest  themselves  for  treatment  in  this  manner, 
although  it  is  to  be  feared  that  a  great  many  of  the 
books  written  in  the  present  day  are  hardly  suitable 
for  illumination.  No  one  would  dream  of  illuminating 
a  treatise  on  surgery  to-day,  and  yet  even  this  was 
done  in  the  Middle  Ages.  There  is  in  the  British  Museum 
an  illuminated  MS.  of  a  French  treatise  on  surgery 
of  the  thirteenth  century  which  is  quite  charming  in 
style.  This  kind  of  thing  is,  however,  quite  impossible 
to-day.  Still,  there  is  quite  a  large  number  of  books 
that  are  suitable  in  every  way  for  illumination. 

Service  books  for  use  in  churches  may  well  be  made 
subjects  for  decoration  in  the  form  suggested  here. 
These  alone  ought  to  offer  plenty  of  scope  for  the 
modern  illuminator.  A  service  book  beautifully- 
printed  on  fine  hand-made  paper  and  illuminated 
should  form  an  ideal  gift  for  a  church. 

A    well-printed    edition     of    a    favourite    author, 


ILLUMINATION   OF  THE   PRINTED   BOOK  237 

illuminated  with  fine  initials  and  borders,  might 
occasionally  be  substituted  for  the  usual  illuminated 
address.  This  would  probably  be  appreciated  very 
much  more  than  the  ordinary  type  of  testimonial 
which  is  generally  given.  In  this  case  an  inscription 
may  be  written  at  the  commencement  of  the  book 
giving  particulars  concerning  the  presentation. 


Q 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

PRINTED   BOOK   DECORATION 

There  ought  to  be  plenty  of  scope  for  the  modern 
illuminator  in  printed  book  decoration.  His  training 
in  writing  and  illumination  ought  to  be  of  the  greatest 
service  to  him  when  he  is  called  upon  to  produce 
decoration  for  the  purpose  of  printing  with  type. 

Without  a  doubt,  the  ideal  form  of  printed  decora- 
tion is  that  produced  by  means  of  wood-blocks  that 
have  been  engraved  by  the  artist.  If  he  is  able  to 
engrave  blocks  from  his  own  designs  it  will  be  possible 
for  him  to  get  much  more  human  interest  in  his  work. 
As  a  direct  method  of  artistic  expression  wood-engrav- 
ing has  merits  far  above  that  of  the  mechanical  methods 
of  reproduction.  Wood-engraving  is,  however,  so 
important  as  to  require  a  separate  treatise,  it  being 
quite  impossible  to  deal  with  it  here. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  printed  book  decoration 
is  produced  from  line  process  blocks,  and  it  is  with 
this  form  of  reproduction  that  it  is  intended  to  deal 
in  this  chapter. 

One  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  book,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  decoration,  is  undoubtedly  the 
title-page.      In  Fig.  51  some  of  the  forms  that  this 

may  take  have  been  suggested.  In  making  a  H  ^sign  for 

338 


PRINTED   BOOK  DECORATION  239 

reproduction  by  this  process  it  is  not  advisable  to 
make  the  drawing  much  larger  than  it  is  required  to 
be  when  reproduced.  The  decoration  loses  much  of 
its  individual  charm  when  it  is  reduced  too  much. 


STONES  OF 
VENICE 


LE  MORTE 
D'ARTHUR 


;4r       **4»  m.,**...      ^f 


^28 

iJOHN  KEATS 


Fig.  51. 


A  successful  reproduction  should  represent  the  original 
drawing  of  the  artist  as  nearly  as  possible,  and  if  it  is 
reduced  a  great  deal  there  will  probably  be  a  con- 
siderable difference  between  the  reproduction  and  the 
original. 

In  designing  a  title-page  a  great  deal  depends  on 


240  ILLUMINATION 

the  style  of  book  it  is  intended  for.  A  book  on  archi- 
tecture or  engineering  would  require  quite  different 
treatment  from  a  volume  of  poetry. 

A  very  simple  form  of  title-page  is  suggested  in 
Fig.  51  (a).  This  consists  of  nicely-arranged  lettering 
with  a  printer's  device  or  some  symbolical  ornament. 
If  desired,  the  larger  lettering  may  be  drawn  and  the 
rest  printed  from  good  type  well  arranged.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  lettering  should 
be  in  keeping  with  that  used  in  the  other  part  of  the 
book. 

A  title-page  with  the  lettering  printed  from  type 
and  suitable  decoration  added  is  a  very  satisfactory 
form. 

The  next  one,  shown  in  (b),  is  one  where  the  letter- 
ing is  enclosed  within  a  border.  This  may  be  either 
quite  simple  or  elaborate,  as  desired. 

The  style  indicated  in  (c)  is  one  in  which  the  letter- 
ing is  incorporated  with  the  design.  This  is  a  form 
often  employed  for  an  elaborately  decorated  edition, 
such  as  a  volume  of  poems. 

The  next  one  (d)  is  the  pictorial  type  :  nicely- 
arranged  lettering  with  a  picture  in  the  centre.  This 
may  be  either  in  line  or  colour,  but  generally  it  is  in 
line,  treated  rather  boldly.  A  woodcut  illustration 
with  red  and  black  lettering  makes  a  very  effective 
title-page. 

The  last  suggestion,  given  in  (e),  is  for  the  double 
form  of  title-page.  A  good  number  of  richly  decorated 
volumes  are  of  this  form. 

Another  type   that   is    often    used  is   where  the 


PRINTED  BOOK  DECORATION  241 

lettering  is  placed  on  a  tablet,  scroll,  cartouche,  or  other 
ornamental  device;  or  the  page  may  be  a  combina- 
tion of  lettering,  border,  and  illustration.  Instead 
of  a  border  that  is  rigidly  defined  it  may  have  a  border 
that  is  quite  loose  in  character. 

Possibly  several  other  variations  will  suggest  them- 
selves to  the  artist. 

Another  important  part  of  book  decoration  is 
the  initial  letter.  As  mentioned  in  the  previous 
chapter  on  the  illumination  of  the  printed  book,  these 
should  be  of  the  Roman  type.  Gothic  initials  should 
never  be  employed  with  modern  type.  Above  all, 
the  initial  letter  should  always  be  distinct.  A  puzzle 
is  all  right  in  its  place,  but  this  is  not  the  place  for  it. 

In  Fig.  52  some  examples  are  given  of  bad  forms  for 
the  student  to  avoid.  It  would  have  been  easy  to 
have  filled  quite  a  large  number  of  pages  with  letters 
of  this  character.  The  letter  A  shown  here  is  a  type 
of  initial  that  was  very  familiar  in  books  about  fifty 
years  ago.  Occasionally  one  sees  it  now,  but  not 
often.  Most  of  these  bad  forms  arise  from  a  misconcep- 
tion as  to  the  nature  of  the  letter.  A  letter  is  simply 
a  sign  intended  to  convey  a  meaning  to  the  reader ; 
there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  pretend  to  be  some- 
thing else.  The  sign  may  certainly  be  a  thing  of 
beauty,  but  surely  making  it  look  as  if  it  is  formed 
with  branches  like  a  rustic  bridge  is  not  making  it 
beautiful. 

Another  bad  type  of  letter  is  shown  in  the  initial 
B.  This  form  of  letter  is  largely  used  by  sign-writers 
even  in  the  present  day.     In  this  case  the  letter  is 


242 


ILLUMINATION 


apparently  conceived  as  a  solid  block,  which  is  drawn 
in  false  perspective  so  that  it  may  throw  a  meaning- 
less shadow. 

Sometimes  the  surface  of  the  letter  is  broken  up, 
as  in  the  letter  C.     In  the  case  of  a  stencilled  letter, 


,U«iB(»| 


Types   of   Initials  to  avoid. 


Fig.  52. 

breaking  the  surface  of  the  letter  is,  of  course,  unavoid- 
able (although  even  in  this  case  it  would  not  be  broken 
up  like  this  example),  but  for  a  printed  letter,  where 
there  is  no  necessity,  it  is  extremely  foolish. 

The  other  C  is  another  example  sometimes  seen, 
formed  with  a  coil  of  rope. 


PRINTED   BOOK   DECORATION 


243 


The  other  shapes  are  all  equally  bad,  and  no  one 
with  a  training  in  really  good  forms  of  lettering  could 
possibly  originate  them.  They  all  practically  err  in 
the  same  direction,  i.e.,  in  pretending  to  be  something 


Fig.  53. 


that  they  are  not.     It  is  curious  that  this  tendency 
should  so  develop. 

Another  bad  form  of  initial,  not  illustrated  here, 
is  that  formed  by  contorting  figures  into  shapes  to 
represent  various  letters.  All  this  sort  of  thing  cannot 
be  too  severely  censured. 


244  ILLUMINATION 

It  is  far  better  to  have  initials  quite  simple  in 
character  rather  than  forms  like  these,  which  are 
absolutely  debased  in  style.  A  fine  form  of  Roman 
capital  with  little  or  no  ornament  added  is  much  to 
be  preferred. 

In  Fig.  53  some  elaborate  examples  are  given 
showing  how  it  is  possible  to  produce  striking  initials 
without  resorting  to  any  of  the  devices  illustrated 
in  Fig.   52. 

The  A  and  the  T  are  examples  of  initials  filled  with 
decoration  based  on  plant-form.  This  makes  a  very 
good  style  of  letter. 

One  of  the  O's  has  a  decorative  landscape  placed  in 
the  centre.  Of  course,  only  the  round  letters  can  be 
treated  in  this  fashion. 

The  other  letter  O  has  a  fanciful  style  of  decoration 
very  suitable  for  the  commencement  of  a  fairy  tale. 
In  fact  this  initial  was  designed  for  that  purpose,  the 
story  commencing  in  the  usual  way,  "  Once  upon  a 
time." 

In  Fig.  54  some  suggestions  are  given  for  tail- 
pieces which  are  used  to  fill  up  when  a  chapter  ends 
half-way  down  the  page.  These  may  be  of  various 
shapes,  such  as  triangular,  rectangular,  lozenge-shaped, 
or  irregular.  They  may  consist  merely  of  decoration 
or  they  may  embody  the  words,  "  The  End,"  "  Finis," 
"  Conclusion,"  or  "  Here  ends  the  story  of ." 

A  small  decorative  scene  may  be  employed  as 
suggested  here.  Another  way  often  used,  and  also 
indicated  here,  is  for  the  lettering  to  be  separate,  with 
a  band  of  ornament  beneath  it. 


PRINTED   BOOK  DECORATION 


245 


Borders  for  illustrations  should  be  in  keeping  with 
the  style  of  the  illustration. 

Chapter  headings  may  be  either  well-arranged 
lettering  enclosed  within  a  border,  or  the  lettering  may 


CONCLUSION 


THE    END. 


Fig.  54. 


be  placed  on  a  scroll,  cartouche,  etc.  Another  form 
may  be  that  in  which  a  picture  is  incorporated  with 
the  decoration.  Generally,  chapter-headings  are  used 
more  in  magazines  than  in  books.  If  one  is  designed 
for  a  special  page  in  a  magazine  it  should  be  definitely 
for  that  particular  page. 


246  ILLUMINATION 

When  making  a  design  that  is  to  be  reproduced  in 
two  colours,  in  which  both  colours  are  distinct — i.e., 
they  do  not  overlap — the  drawing  should  be  made  all 
in  black.  A  sheet  of  tracing-paper  is  then  pasted  on 
the  top  edge  at  the  back  and  folded  over  on  the  face 
of  the  drawing.  The  parts  that  are  intended  to  be 
printed  in  the  second  colour  should  then  be  painted  in 
with  vermilion  on  the  tracing-paper.  This  indicates 
to  the  block-maker  the  parts  to  cut  out  when  making 
the  blocks.  The  reason  for  doing  this  is  because  it 
is  much  easier  to  make  the  line-blocks  irom  the  drawing 
if  it  is  all  in  black.  Of  course,  this  only  applies  when 
the  two  colours  are  quite  distinct.  When  they  over- 
lap, the  best  way  is  to  make  two  separate  drawings  in 
black.  This  can  be  done  quite  well  by  making  a  pencil 
drawing  first,  then  painting  in  one  colour  in  black  on 
this  drawing ;  the  second  colour  is  then  painted  on  a 
piece  ol  tracing-paper  which  is  placed  over  this  drawing 
for  the  time  being.  A  small  cross  should  be  placed  at 
each  corner  of  the  drawing  and  traced  through  on  to 
the  second  one  to  act  as  register  marks  for  the  block- 
maker. 

Generally  speaking,  all  designs  for  book-decoration 
should  be  in  line.  The  great  disadvantage  of  the  half- 
tone process  is  that  the  blocks  cannot  be  printed  well  on 
a  paper  that  has  the  slightest  tendency  towards 
being  rough  on  the  surface.  The  best  results  are 
undoubtedly  produced  when  they  are  printed  on  art 
paper.  Art  paper  is,  however,  far  from  durable,  and 
should  not  be  used  for  books  that  are  required  to  be 
lasting.     Apart  from  this,  the  half-tone  process  is  not 


PRINTED   BOOK   DECORATION  247 

nearly  so  satisfactory  as  the  line  process.  A  good 
line  block  will  give  a  fairly  faithful  reproduction  of  the 
original  drawing  without  losing  detail.  This  cannot 
be  altogether  claimed  for  the  half-tone  process.  Three- 
colour  process  blocks,  being  a  development  of  this, 
are  open  to  the  same  objections.  When  the  student 
has  seen  some  of  his  work  reproduced  by  these  processes 
he  will  be  able  to  appreciate  the  difference. 

If  colour  is  required  in  the  decoration,  a  much  more 
satisfactory  form  of  colour  reproduction  is  that  pro- 
duced from  several  line  blocks,  but,  of  course,  if  this 
process  is  used  there  must  be  no  attempt  at  wash 
effects. 

This  chapter  is  intended  to  be  merely  suggestive 
of  the  developments  in  printed  book-decoration  that 
ought  to  be  quite  possible  for  the  modern  illuminator. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS 

It  may  be  as  well  again  to  emphasise  the  fact  that  it 
is  imperative,  if  one  desires  to  succeed  in  the  art  of 
illumination,  that  it  should  be  taken  up  in  a  serious 
manner  and  not  merely  as  a  pleasant  pastime.  It  is 
an  art  which  is  worthy  of  the  best  that  time  and 
careful  study  can  give  to  it,  and  it  may  serve  as  useful 
a  purpose  in  the  present  day  as  it  has  done  in  the  past. 

There  is  no  royal  road  to  success  :  this  can  only 
come  through  steadily  plodding  along  the  lines  sug- 
gested. The  methods  of  study  that  have  been  out- 
lined in  the  previous  chapters  are  the  result  of  what 
the  writer  has  learned  in  the  hard  but  excellent  school 
of  experience. 

Good,  well-formed  writing  comes  first  and  foremost, 
making  use  of  the  reed  and  quill  pen  in  the  formation 
of  letters.  The  method  of  practice,  commencing  with 
simple  pen-strokes,  that  is  given  in  the  early  part  of 
this  book,  ought  to  enable  the  student  to  produce  good 
lettering  if  he  works  with  the  exercises  in  the  manner 
suggested.  After  he  has  become  familiar  with  the  use 
of  the  pen  in  this  way  he  will  be  able  to  study  the 
various  forms  of  lettering  that   were  used  in  the  past 

in  a  much  more  intelligent  fashion  than  would  be  the 

348 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS  249 

case  if  he  had  no  knowledge  concerning  the  manner 
in  which  the  letters  were  formed.  He  should  continue 
this  study  on  the  lines  suggested  in  Chapter  6, 
and  should  not  be  content  with  the  examples  given  here 
but  should  study  the  original  manuscripts  for  himself. 

Careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the  way  in 
which  the  lettering  is  arranged  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  letters  and  words  are  massed  together. 
The  student  cannot  have  too  much  practice  with  the 
reed  and  quill  pen. 

The  many  good  historical  forms  of  Roman  lettering 
should  not  be  neglected.  Roman  lettering  is,  without 
doubt,  the  most  useful  form  of  lettering  for  general 
inscriptions,  and  it  is  necessary  that  the  modern 
illuminator  should  be  familiar  with  the  beautiful  forms 
of  this  style  of  lettering.  He  should  note  the  general 
arrangement  of  these  letters  when  used  in  inscrip- 
tions, etc.  He  will  experience  no  difficulty  in  getting 
photographs  of  some  of  the  important  Latin  inscrip- 
tions that  were  executed  with  letters  of  this  style. 

He  should  endeavour  to  form  these  letters  in  a 
direct  manner  with  the  pen  and  brush,  and,  if  he  has 
worked  consistently  with  the  quill  and  reed  pen  in 
the  manner  described,  he  will  find  that  he  will  soon 
acquire  dexterity  in  forming  these  letters.  The  practice 
that  he  gets  through  forming  these  letters  with  the 
brush  will  be  most  helpful  to  him  when  the  time 
comes  for  him  to  make  use  of  the  brush  for  painting  in 
decoration. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  very  brief  sketch  that  is  given 
of  the  history  of  illumination  may  arouse  some  interest, 


250  ILLUMINATION 

so  that  the  student  will  study  this  subject  for  himself, 
going  into  detail  that  is  quite  impossible  here.  Even 
if  the  whole  of  this  volume  had  been  devoted  to  the 
history  of  this  art  it  would  have  been  impossible  in 
this  limited  space  to  deal  with  it  in  an  efficient  manner. 
The  object  of  this  short  survey  has  been  merely  to  act 
as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  this  important 
subject. 

Making  use  of  a  simple  colour  scheme  such  as  red 
and  black,  as  is  suggested  in  Chapter  12  .,  is  likely 
to  act  as  an  excellent  training  in  taste.  If  the  student 
starts  straight  away  with  a  full  array  of  colours,  the 
chances  are  that  the  result  may  be  anything  but 
pleasant  and  agreeable.  If  he  is  able  to  produce  good 
pattern  with  black  and  red,  he  will  probably  be  able 
to  do  good  work  with  gold  and  colours.  However,  if 
he  cannot  make  good  pattern  with  these,  he  will  find 
it  difficult  to  do  it  more  successfully  with  less  limited 
means. 

The  student  will  never  regret  the  time  spent  in  the 
study  of  the  best  work  of  the  Middle  Ages.  By  this 
means  he  is  brought  face  to  face  with  examples  of 
the  work  of  artists  who  were  masters  in  this  particular 
craft.  The  study  of  the  best  work  that  the  mediaeval 
artists  have  produced,  combined  with  plenty  of  study 
from  nature,  is,  without  doubt,  the  finest  training  that 
the  modern  illuminator  could  possibly  have.  One 
would  hesitate  to  recommend  the  one  without  the 
other,  as  the  general  tendency  of  the  illuminator  who 
neglects  nature  study,  going  to  ancient  examples 
only,  is  to  produce  weak  imitations  of  mediaeval  work. 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS  251 

If  this  is  the  case,  there  can  be  no  opportunity  for  real 
living  art.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  study  of  the  best 
work  of  the  mediaeval  period  is  neglected,  he  loses  the 
benefit  that  may  be  gained  by  a  close  study  of  the 
methods  of  working  employed  by  the  artists  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  same  problems  that  confront  him 
were  before  the  mediaeval  artist,  and,  although  there 
is  no  necessity  for  him  to  produce  imitation  thirteenth- 
and  fourteenth-century  illumination,  he  is  able  to  build 
on  the  foundation  that  these  artists  have  laid  and  help 
to  carry  forward  the  traditions  of  the  craft  in  the  best 
way  that  he  is  able. 

That  there  are  abundant  ways  in  the  present  day 
in  which  the  modern  illuminator  may  make  use  of  his 
craft  has  been  amply  exemplified  in  the  preceding 
pages.  The  work  of  the  craftsman,  of  course,  stands 
first  and  foremost,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  machine  has  come  to  stay,  and  the  artist  must 
endeavour  to  realise  something  of  the  great  possi- 
bilities that  there  are  in  this  direction.  Although  the 
product  of  the  machine  can  never  equal  that  of  hand- 
craft, there  is  no  reason  why,  if  there  is  intelligent 
co-operation  between  the  artist  and  the  manufacturer, 
the  greater  part  of  the  work  produced  should  not  be 
infinitely  superior  in  character  than  is  so  often  the  case. 

There  are  numerous  ways  in  which  the  machine 
is  employed  in  which  it  would  be  quite  impossible 
adequately  to  deal  with  the  matter  from  a  craftsman's 
standpoint.  To  mention  just  one  branch  alone  :  Christ- 
mas cards  and  calendars.  It  would  be  quite  im- 
possible to  do  all  these  by  hand,  and  yet  it  is  certainly 


252  ILLUMINATION 

desirable  that  they  should  be  done  in  the  best  possible 
taste  and  in  as  efficient  a  manner  as  possible.  It  is 
here  that  the  opportunity  for  the  properly  trained 
artist  arises,  and,  if  he  gives  of  his  best  workmanship, 
the  finished  production  should  be  all  the  better  through 
his  influence. 

This  is  surely  a  sufficient  excuse  for  dealing  with 
the  various  developments  of  illumination  commercially. 

Book  decoration,  both  in  connection  with  MS. 
book  and  the  printed  book,  is,  however,  the  thing  most 
in  keeping  with  the  true  spirit  of  illumination.  Illu- 
mination seems  to  be  bound  up  with  book  production, 
and,  if  the  modern  collector  could  only  see  that  a  fine 
illuminated  manuscript  was  a  work  of  art  as  desirable 
as  a  picture  for  a  permanent  possession,  there  ought 
to  be  a  fair  demand  for  the  work  of  the  modern 
illuminator. 

The  illuminated  MS.  book  is,  without  doubt,  the 
ideal  work  for  the  illuminator,  and  it  seems  a  pity 
that  there  should  not  be  a  greater  demand  than  there 
is  at  the  present  time.  Certainly  an  illuminated  manu- 
script book,  specially  written,  would  be  much  better 
for  a  presentation  than  the  average  illuminated 
testimonial,  and  it  would  probably  meet  with  far  more 
appreciation. 

No  one  would  be  so  foolish  as  to  wish  to  do  away 
with  the  printed  book,  as  this  has  now  become  a  neces- 
sity, but  surely  the  manuscript  book  should  not  be 
altogether  a  thing  of  the  past  ! 

Some  people  are  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  a  waste  of 
time  nroducing  illuminated  manuscript?  in  the  present 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS  253 

day.  Still,  is  time  ever  wasted  in  producing  beautiful 
workmanship  ?  Surely  not.  The  time  spent  in  the 
production  of  any  real  work  of  art  is  never  wasted. 

Poetry,  when  mixed  up  with  commercial  matter 
and  obviously  printed  by  commercial  methods,  loses 
considerably  because  the  surroundings  are  uncongenial. 
However,  the  illuminated  manuscript  enhances  it  by 
presenting  it  in  an  artistic  form. 

Probably  nothing  offers  a  better  opportunity  for 
the  illuminator,  as  a  subject  for  an  illuminated  volume, 
than  poetry.  The  illuminated  rendering  seems  to 
give  it  an  extra  quality.  The  antiquity  of  the  illumin- 
ated book,  and  the  fact  that  it  was  a  means  of  presenting 
the  romances  of  the  Middle  Ages,  makes  it  the  natural 
vehicle  for  the  poetic  message. 

Its  value  for  liturgical  purposes  is  also  of  importance, 
and  certainly  it  has  been  more  generally  used  for  this 
purpose  than  any  other  in  the  past.  Probably  the 
reason  why  it  is  so  suited  to  this  is  owing  to  the  con- 
servative nature  of  liturgy  demanding  antique  associa- 
tions. 

No  doubt,  like  most  other  hand  methods  of  produc- 
tion, the  demand  for  this  must  necessarily  be  limited, 
as  the  modern  craze  for  cheapness  renders  the  price 
impossible  to  any  large  extent.  Therefore  it  can 
never  be  expected  to  enter  into  competition  with  the 
printed  book.  Also  printing  has  now  become  a 
separate  art — at  least,  the  style  of  lettering  and  decora- 
tion owes  little  or  nothing  to  the  illuminated  manuscript 
as  was  the  case  with  the  earliest  European  printed 
books.     The  art  of  printing  has,  however,  developed 

R 


254  ILLUMINATION 

considerably  since  those  times,  and,  the  character  now 
being  totally  different,  consequently  there  is  no  reason 
why  the  printed  book  should  be  an  imitation  of  the 
manuscript. 

Illumination  and  printing  should  both  develop 
along  their  special  lines,  the  developments  of  both 
depending  on  the  exigencies  of  the  materials  employed. 
Thus,  in  relation  to  the  printed  book,  the  printing 
process  should  be  developed  to  get  the  best  results 
possible. 

Probably  the  ideal  printed  book  would  have  the 
decoration  printed  from  wood-blocks  engraved  by  the 
artist  himself.  If  the  decoration  and  illustrations  take 
the  form  of  reproductions  of  drawings  there  can  never  be 
the  same  life  and  vitality  as  when  the  whole  is  the 
direct  creation  of  the  artist. 

Of  course,  this  is  mentioned  merely  as  an  ideal  of 
what  the  printed  book  should  be.  In  practice,  however, 
one  is  not  always  able  to  work  up  to  this  standard. 
Reproduction  by  means  of  line  blocks  is  probably  one 
of  the  best  forms  of  process  work  that  can  be  employed 
in  book  decoration. 

Any  peculiar  qualities  that  the  form  of  press  or 
machine  used  is  able  to  give  should  be  used  to  advan- 
tage. The  printer  should  seize  every  opportunity  which 
occurs  that  may  help  to  render  his  work  more  effective. 

Although  it  is  not  desirable  that  the  printer  should 
imitate  the  work  of  the  illuminator,  there  is  certainly 
no  reason  why  they  should  not  work  together  as 
suggested  in  Chapter  XXVII,  the  illuminator  adding 
illuminated  initials,  borders,  and  other  decoration  so 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS  255 

that  the  completed  volume  represents  the  work  of  the 
printer  and  the  illuminator.  This  was  often  done  in 
the  early  days  of  printing,  and  there  is  surely  the 
possibility  of  good  work  being  done  in  this  way  at  the 
present  time. 

There  certainly  ought  to  be  plenty  of  opportuni- 
ties for  the  illuminator  even  in  the  present  day.  It 
is,  however,  of  the  utmost  importance  that  he  should 
be  able  to  produce  high-class  workmanship.  Weak, 
amateurish  efforts  have  no  commercial  value.  To 
attain  perfection  patient  and  sincere  effort  is  required. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

NOTES  ON   BOOKS 

In  this  the  closing  chapter  of  this  book  it  may  be  as 
well  to  suggest  a  few  books  that  might  be  useful  for 
further  study.  It  is  not  intended,  by  any  means,  to 
give  anything  like  a  complete  bibliography  on  this 
subject,  but  merely  to  refer  to  a  few  of  the  books  that 
the  writer  has  found  to  be  of  service  to  him.  Some 
of  the  books  mentioned  may  possibly  be  out  of  print, 
but  copies  may  be  seen  in  most  of  the  larger  public 
libraries. 

The  following  books  treat  the  subject  of  illumina- 
tion broadly  from  the  historical  standpoint :  English 
Illuminated  MSS.,  by  Sir  E.  M.  Thompson,  Illuminated 
MSS.  in  Classical  and  Medieval  Times,  by  J.  H. 
Middleton,  and  Illuminated  Manuscripts,  by  J.  A. 
Herbert.  Another  most  useful  book  for  the  student 
is  the  Historical  Introduction  to  the  Collection  of  Illumin- 
ated Letters  and  Borders  in  the  National  Art  Library,  by 
John  W.  Bradley. 

Reproductions  of  some  of  the  illuminated  MSS. 
in  the  British  Museum  have  been  published  by  the 
Museum  authorities.  Illuminated  Manuscripts  in  the 
British  Museum,  by  G.  F.  Warner,  contains  a  series  of 

plates   beautifully   reproduced   in   gold   and   colours. 

256 


NOTES  ON   BOOKS  257 

These  give  as  nearly  as  possible  in  a  reproduction 
some  idea  of  what  the  originals  are  like.  Three  sets 
of  fifty  collotype  plates,  Reproductions  of  Illuminated 
Manuscripts,  are  also  published  of  the  illuminated  MSS. 
in  the  British  Museum.  A  Guide  to  the  Manuscripts 
in  the  British  Museum  also  contains  a  number  of  half- 
tone reproductions,  and  The  Catalogue  of  Illuminated 
Manuscripts,  Part  2,  Miniatures,  Leaves,  and  Cuttings, 
published  by  the  authorities  of  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum,  has  a  good  number  of  illustrations.  The 
series  of  excellent  photographic  facsimiles  published 
by  the  Palaeographical  Society  are  also  most  useful 
for  reference. 

For  students  who  wish  to  give  special  attention 
to  the  work  of  any  particular  schools  of  illumination, 
such  as  the  Byzantine,  Celtic,  or  Winchester  Schools, 
the  following  books  are  recommended : 

Byzantine  School. — For  a  general  history  of 
Byzantine  art,  Byzantine  Art,  by  O.  M.  Dalton,  and 
Manuel  d'Art  Byzantine,  by  Ch.  Diehl.  Both  of  these 
writers  deal  with  illuminated  manuscripts  as  well  as 
other  branches  of  Byzantine  art.  For  a  work  dealing 
exclusively  with  Byzantine  MSS.  the  Histoire  de  I' Art 
Byzantin  consider e  .  .  .  dans  le  Miniatures,  by  M. 
Kondakoff,  may  be  recommended. 

Celtic  School. — Early  Christian  Art  in  Ireland,  by 
Margaret  M.  Stokes,  is  a  very  useful  book.  Other  helpful 
books  are  The  Fine  Arts  and  Civilization  of  Ancient 
Ireland,  by  Henry  O'Niell,  and  Celtic  Art  in  Pagan  and 
Christian  Times,  by  J.  Romilly  Allen.  An  Enquiry  into  the 
Art  of  the  Illuminated  Manuscripts  of  the  Middle  Ages. 


258  ILLUMINATION 

/.  Celtic  Illuminated  Manuscripts,  by  Johann  Adolf 
Bruun,  deals  with  the  Celtic  MSS.  in  a  fairly  compre- 
hensive manner.  This  book  is  illustrated  with  repro- 
ductions from  some  of  the  manuscripts  referred  to. 
Facsimiles  of  the  Miniatures  and  Ornaments  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  Irish  Manuscripts,  by  J.  O.  Westwood,  con- 
tains a  number  of  chromo-lithographic  reproductions 
of  these  manuscripts.  The  Book  of  Kelts,  recently 
published  by  the  publishers  of  The  Studio,  contains  a 
large  number  of  the  pages  and  initials  from  this  well- 
known  manuscript  which  have  been  reproduced  by 
means  of  the  three-colour  process.  The  Introduction 
to  this  volume  has  been  written  by  Sir  Edward  Sullivan. 

Winchester  School. — An  account  of  one  of  the 
most  important  manuscripts  of  this  school,  viz.,  the 
famous  Benedictional  of  ^Ethelwold,  is  given  in  Vol.  I. 
of  the  Bibliographical  Decameron,  by  Dr.  Dibdin  ;  also 
Dr.  Waagen  gives  a  description  of  it  in  Vol.  III.  of 
Treasures  of  Art  in  Great  Britain.  In  Vol.  XXIV.  of  the 
Archcelogia,  pages  1-117,  there  is  also  A  Dissertation 
on  St.  Mthelwold' s  Benedictional,  by  John  Gage 
Rokewood.  This  is  illustrated  with  thirty-two  plates 
of  reproductions  of  the  pages  of  this  manuscript.  The 
same  writer  gives,  in  pages  1 18-136,  A  Description 
of  a  Benedictional  or  Pontifical,  called  Benedictionarius 
Roberti  Archiepiscopi.  Thus  two  of  the  most  famous 
of  all  the  Winchester  MSS.  are  here  described  in  a  most 
careful  and  painstaking  fashion. 

Lettering,  especially  in  its  application  to  illumina- 
tion, is  dealt  with  very  thoroughly  in  Writing  and 
Illuminating    and    Lettering,    by    Edward    Johnston. 


NOTES  ON   BOOKS  259 

This  book  is  well  illustrated  with  diagrams,  and  the 
instructions  given  on  how  to  cut  and  use  the  reed  and 
quill  pen  are  very  clear.  It  is  a  very  useful  book  for 
the  student.  Other  books  on  the  subject  of  lettering 
that  will  be  found  to  be  of  service  are  Lettering  in 
Ornament,  and  Alphabets,  Old  and  New,  by  Lewis  F. 
Day,  also  Alphabets,  by  Edward  F.  Strange.  For 
those  who  wish  to  study  lettering  from  the  standpoint 
of  palaeography,  Greek  and  Latin  Paleography,  by 
Sir  Edward  Maunde  Thompson,  is  a  good  introductory 
work  on  this  subject. 

The  following  books  may  be  of  interest  to  the 
student  who  is  desirous  of  further  information  con- 
cerning the  colours  and  methods  of  working  employed 
by  the  mediaeval  artist  :  Mrs.  Merrifield's  Ancient 
Practice  of  Painting,  the  Schedula  Diversarum  Artium 
of  Theophilus,  and  The  Book  of  the  Art  of  Cennino 
Cennini.  Mrs.  Merrifield's  book  contains  a  number  of 
translations  of  the  early  manuscripts  that  describe 
the  technical  methods  employed  by  the  mediaeval 
artists.  The  treatise  of  Theophilus  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  by  R.  Hendrie,  and  the  best  trans- 
lation of  Cennini's  book  is  that  by  Mrs.  Herringham. 
Materials  of  the  Painter's  Craft,  and  Processes,  Pigments, 
and  Vehicles,  by  Dr.  A.  P.  Laurie,  are  books  that  deal 
with  this  subject  in  a  very  interesting  and  helpful 
manner. 

As  the  study  of  Heraldry  is  very  important  to 
the  illuminator,  the  following  books  are  mentioned  : 
Complete  Guide  to  Heraldry,  by  A.  C.  Fox-Davies, 
English  Heraldry,  by  Charles  Boutell,  and  Heraldry, 


260  ILLUMINATION 

by  W.   H.   St.  John  Hope.     The  Stall  Plates  of  the 
Garter,  1348-1485,  also  by  W.  H.  St.  John  Hope. 

Didron's  Iconography  of  Christian  Art,  and  Em- 
blems of  the  Saints,  by  F.  C.  Husenbeth,  are  books  that 
are  most  useful  to  the  illuminator  when  doing  work 
that  is  ecclesiastical  in  character. 

The  list  of  books  that  is  detailed  here  is  necessarily 
incomplete,  but  the  student  will  find  that  by  studying 
these  he  will  be  referred  to  others,  and  so  will  be 
able  to  continue  the  study. 


t^ou  of  noble  mind 
u?ko  arc  lovers  of 
this  oood,  come  act:  once  to 
art  and,  adorn  uourselves 
tmtk  this  vesture,—  namelu, 
love,  reverence,  obedience , 
and  perseverance.  And  as 
soon  ccs  tkou  canst,  bealn 
to  put  tkusetf  under  tree 
ejiuidance  of  tnc/  master  to 
learn,  and  delau  as  long'  as 
tkou  matjest  truj  parting 
from  tke  master.  ^u&ueu< 

+   cennino  cennini  + 


INDEX 


Address,  illuminated,  171 -7 
Advertisement,   design   for,    192 
Advertisements,  lettering  for,  72,  192, 

196-9 
Air  bubbles  in  raising  preparation,  158 
Alcuin  Bibles,  89 
Alfred  the  Great,  90 
Alizarin  crimson,  127 
Alphabet,  its  development,   32 

the  Roman,  32,  70-83 

from  the  Book  of  Kells,  66 
Alphabets  for  study,  60-9 
Altar  tablets,  169 
Aluminium  leaf,   147 

paint,  147 
Ambrosian  Iliad,  85 
Anglo-Celtic  illumination,  87,  102 
Armenian  Bole,  143-4 
Arsenic,  sulphide  of,  115 
Art  paper,  232 
Arzica,  120,  121 
Athelstan' s  Psalter,  90 
Azthelwold,  Benedictional  of,  91 
Aureolin,  124 
Azurite,  115 
Azzuro  della  magna,  121 

oltre  marino,  121 

Babylonian  characters,  25 

Backgrounds,  diaper,  95 

Barium  sulphate,   130 

Beauty,  222 

Bedford  Book  of  Hours,  98 

Benedictional  of  Azthelwold,  91 

Biacca,  121,  142 

Bianco  Sangiovanni,  121 

Bible  of  Robert  de  Bello,  95 

Bible  History,  moralised,  95 

Bichromate  of  potash,  208 

Binding  MSS.,  a  simple  method  of,  225- 

231 
Black  pigments,  129 
Blocks,  line,   178-9 

half-tone,    1 80 

three-colour,  180-1 
Blood,  dragon's,  116,  120 


Blue  pigments,  127 

Body-colours,  135 

Bole,   Armenian,    143,   144 

Book,   the  illuminated   MS.,    216-24 
printed,  illumination  of,   232-37 
printed,  decoration  of,  238-47 

Book-hands,  the  study  of,  60-9 

Bookplate,  201 

Borders,  245 

Bridget,  St.,  87 

British  Museum  publications,   106 

Bronze  gilding,  185-6 
powder,   146 

Brown  pigments,    129 

Brushes,  154,  155 

Brush-formed  lettering,   73,   no,   ill, 
208-12 

Bubbles  in  raising  preparation,  158 

Building  up  letters,  71,  109-n 

Bunisher,  agate,  148,   151 

Burnt  sienna,  127 

Burnt  umber,  129 

Byzantine  illumination,  85-6 

Cadmium  yellows,  124 
Calligraphy,  its  development,  23 
Cambrensis,  Giraldus,  87 
Camel-hair  mop,  148,  151 
Capitals,  square,  33 

rustic,   33 
Capital  letters,  65,  66,  67,  no 
Carbolic  acid,  133 
Carlovingian  illumination,  89 

writing,  40 
Carmine,  127 
Celtic  and  Anglo-Celtic  illumination,  87, 

102 
Cennino  Cennini,   120,    142 
Cerulean  Blue,   127 
Ceruse,  118 
Chalk,   115,   121 
Chapter  headings,  245 
Charlemagne,  39,  89 
Charta  Pergamena,   30 
Charter,  Golden,  91 
China  slab,   132 


363 


264 


INDEX 


Chinese  vermilion,  126 
Christmas  cards,  185-191 
Chrome  yellows,   124,   125 
Chromium  oxide,  128 
Chromo-lithography,  1 82 
Cinabrese,  120 
Cinnabar,  116,  120 
Classical  illumination,  84 
Clay  as  writing  material,  24 
Clothlet  tints,  122 
Cobalt  blue,  127 
Cobalt  violet,  12S 
Cobalt  yellow,  124 
Cochineal,  127 

Cold  tea  for  tinting  paper,  153 
Colophon,  the,  221 

Colours   used   by  the   mediaeval  illu- 
minator, 1 15-122 
their  composition  and  permanence, 

123-30 
cake,  131 
tube,  131 
powder,  132 
body,  135 

their  preparation  and  use,   131-7 
Columba,  St.,  88 
Commercial  design,  lettering  for,  192- 

202 
Compass,  proportional,  68 
Concluding  remarks,  248-55 
Copper  blues  and  greens,  115,  118,  121, 

122 
Crimson,  alizarin,  127 

lake,  127 
Cursive  writing,  32 
Cutting  the  pen,  42,  43 
Cyperus  papyrus,  28 

Decoration,  156,  161-6,  222,  234 

of  printed  book,  238-47 
Designs  in  two  colours,  246 
Designing,  187 

Designing  a  magazine  cover,  200-2 
Diagrams,  lettering  for,  195 
Diaper  backgrounds,  95 
Dioscorides,  The,  85 
Dividers,  spring,   107 
Dragon's  blood,  116,  120 
Durham  Book,  37,  88,   102 
Durrow,  Book  of,  88 
Dutch  metal,  147 

Earth  colours,  115 

Edgar,  Golden  Charter  of,  91 

Egg,  white  of,  n  8-9 

used  for  gilding,  139,  1 4°.  M1.  *43 

yolk,  119 


Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  27 
writing  materials,  27,  28 
Eighth-century  writing,  38,  39 
Emerald  green,  128 
Eraclius,  119 
Erasures,  152-3 

Eumenes  II.,  king  of  Pergamus,  30 
Exercises  in  the  use  of  the  pen,  45 

Family  trees,  170 

Fifteenth-century    illumination,     and 
later,  97-100 

writing,  41,  79.  8o 
Fifth-century  writing,   33-5 
Figures,  pen-formed,  57 
Fish-glue  for  mixing  with  colours,  117 
Fixed  inks,   206,  208 
Flake  white,  130 

Forming  words  and  sentences,  54-9 
Fourteenth-century  illumination,  96 

writing,  65 
Fourth-century  writing,  33 
Framing  illuminated  work,  174 

Gamboge,  125 
Garcinia  Cambogia,  125 
Genesis  of  Vienna  Library,  85-6 
Codex  in  British  Museum,  86 
Gesso   Sottile,    142-4 
Giallorino,   120-1 
Gilding  methods  of  the  Middle    Ages, 

138-145 
raised,  142,  H7-  157-°° 
bronze,  185-6 
Gilder's  cushion,  147-8 
knife,  148-50 

tip,  148.  I5°~l 
Giraldus  Cambrensis,  87 
Glycerine  in  colours,  131 
Gold,  the  use  of,  136-51 

leaf,  139.  146-7 
handling  it,   148-9 

shell,   146 

paint,   146,   185 

grinding,  141,  144 
Gold  size  and  raising  preparation,  150-9 
Gold-beating,  its  antiquity,  139 
Golden  Charter  of  King  Edgar,  91 
Gospels,  The  Lindisfarne,  37,  88,  102 
Green  pigments,  128 
Gum,  for  mixing  colours,  133 

Half-tone  blocks,    180 
Half-uncials,   36 

Irish,  36 

English,  37 
Handwriting,  ordinary,  24 
Harleian  Psalter,  91 


INDEX 


265 


Heraldry,  175 

Hiberno-Saxon  illumination,  102 

Hieroglyphic  and  hieratic  characters, 

27 
Holding  the  pen,  44-6 
Honey,  mixed  with  colours,  131 
in  raising  preparation,  186 

I,   THE  LETTER,   59 

Ichneumon  brush,   158 
Iliad,  Ambrosian,  85 
Illumination,   the   study   of,    23,    166, 
248-51 

classical  and  Byzantine,  84-6 

Celtic  and  Anglo-Celtic,   87-9,   102 

Carlovingian,  89 

Winchester,  89-92 

twelfth-century,  93-4 

thirteenth-century,  94-6 

fourteenth-century,  96-7 

fifteenth-century,  97-9 

Italian,  99 

in  black  and  red,  107-14 

with  gold  and  colours,  152-60 

the  further  development  of,  161-70 
Illuminated  MS.  book,  216-24 
Illustrations,  lettering  under,  234 
Indaco  baccadeo,   121 
Indian  ink,  129 
Indigo,  116,  121 
Influence  of  the  tool,  23-31 
Initial  letter,   101-6 
Ink,  44 

classical,  117 

mediaeval,  119 
Invitation  cards,   190 
Isidore,  St.,  28 
Ivory  black,  129 

J,   THE  LETTER,   59 

Japanese  brush,  208-9 
Jehan  le  Begue,  MS.  of,  119 
Joshua  Rotulus,  86 

Kells,  Book  of,  88,  10 1 
Kermes,   116 
Kildarc,  Book  of,  87 
Kneaded  rubber,  160 
Knife  for  cutting  the  pen,  46 

Labels,  designs  for,  198 
Lakes,  116,  119 
Lampblack,  129 
Lapis  Lazuli,  127 
Laurie,  Dr.  A.  P.,  138 
Lead,  white,  121,  130 
Leaf,  gold,   139,  I46"7 


Lens,  magnifying,  68 
Letter,  the  initial,  10 1-6 
Letters,  pen-formed,  48-53 

brush-formed,  73,  iio-i,  208-9 

building  up,  73,  110-1 

capital,  65-7,  110 
Lettering,   Roman,   70-83 

for  advertisements,  72,  192,  196-9 

for  commercial  design,  192-202 
Leucophoron,  139 
Lighting  of  work,  50 
Lindisfarne  Gospels,  37,  88,   102 
Line  blocks,   178-9 
Lithography,   181-2 
Liturgical     purposes,     the     value     of 

illumination  for,  169-70,  253 
Lombardic  writing,  38-9 
Lucca  MS.,  117,  139 

Machine,  the,  251 
Madder,  purple,  128 

rose,   127 

scarlet,  127 
Magazine  covers,  designing,  200-2 
Magnifying  lens,  68 
Majuscule  writing,  32 
Manuscript  books,  illuminated,  216-24 
Mappcs  Clavicula,  117,  140 
Maps  and  diagrams,  lettering  for,  195 
Marriage  Service,  170 
Mary's  Psalter,  96 
Mastery  of  the  tool,  42 
Menu,  design  for,  2 10- 11 
Merovingian  writing,  39-40 
Merrifield,  Mrs.,  119 
Metaphrastes,  Simeon,  86 
Method  of  setting  out  page,   107-8 
Miniature   painting,    91,     100,     167-8, 

222 
Minium,  118 
Minuscule  writing,  38 
Mixed  uncials,  35 
Muller  for  grinding  colours,  133 
Murex,  116 

NiNTH-century  writing,  37 

Naples  yellow,  125 

Natural  History,  Pliny's,   11 5-6 

Nature  study,  163-6 

New  blue,  128 

Note-heading,  199 

Notices,  170 

Ochre,  yellow,  125 
"Old  English,"  65 
Opus  Anglicum,  90 
Originality,  168-9 


266 


INDEX 


Orpiment,   115,   119, 
Oxgall,  160 


122 


P,   THE  LETTER,   53 

Pad  for  writing  upon,  48 

Page,  method  of  setting  out,  107-8 

Palaeography,  33 

Palette  knife,   133-4 

Paper,  44,  153 

art,  232 

stretching,    154 
Papyrus,  28 
Parchment,  derivation  of  the  word,  30 

tinting,  122 

size,  140 
Pattern,  simple,  11 3-4 
Pedigrees,  170 
Pen,  holding  the,  44-6 

cutting  the,  42-3 

exercises  in  the  use  of  the,  45 

the  reed,  27-8,  42 

the  quill,  first  mention  of,  28 

-strokes,  45 

-formed  letters,  48-53 
figures,  57 

-wiper,  46 
Pencils,  107,  152-3 
Pezzuole  colours,  122 
Philippo  de  Maizidres,  Epistle  of,  105 
Phoenician  alphabet,   32 
Pigments,  blue,  127 

brown,  129 

black,  129 

green,  128 

red,   125 

white,  129 

yellow,  124 
Planning  out  MS.  book,  217-20 
Plant  drawing,   163-5 
Plaster  of  Paris,  144 
Platinum  leaf,  147 
Pliny,  1 15-6 
Plum-tree  gum,  n  7-8 
Poetry,  illumination  of,  223,  253 
Posters,  lettering  for,  197 

hand-written,  203-13 
Potash,  bichromate  of,  208 
Pounce  for  vellum,  155 
Powder  colours,  132 
Practise  in  writing,  52 
Preparing  colours,  131-7 
Printed  book,  the  ideal,  254 

the  illumination  of,  232-7 

the  decoration  of,   238-47 
Printing  and  illumination,  254 
Process  blocks,   178-81 

work,  white  for,  130 


Proportional  compass,  68 
Psalter,  Athelstan's,  90 

Queen  Mary's,  96 

of  Westminster  Abbey,  94 

Harleian,  91 
Pumice  powder,   155 

Queen  Mary's  Psalter,  96 
Quill  pen,  the  earliest  allusion  to  it, 
28 
cutting  it,  42-3 

Rabula  MS.,  86 

Raised  gilding,   142,   147,   157-60 
Raising  preparation,  158-9 
Raw  sienna,   125 

umber,  129 
Red  and  black,  the  use  of,  107-14,  250 
Red  pigments,   125 
Reed  pens,  27-8,  42 
Reproduction,  the  various  methods  of, 

178-84 
Risalgallo  Realgar,   121 
Roman  bronze  pens,  28 

lettering,  70-83 

made  with  simple  pen- 
strokes,  73-4 
Rose  madder,  127 
Rubber,  kneaded,  160 
Rustic  capitals,  33 

S,  THE  LETTER,  57-8 

Sable  writer,  83,  212 
Saffron,  12 1-2 
St.  Bridget,  87 

Columba,  88 

Isidore,  28 

Swithin,  90 
Salt  green,  118 
Sap  of  Iris,  118 
Saucers  for  colour,  135 
Scarlet  madder,  127 
Schedula  Diversarum  Artium,  117 
Scraper,  133,  135 

Scriptoria,  the  two  Winchester,  90 
Sections  for  MS.  books,  217 
Sepia,  129 
Service  books,  169 
Service,  Marriage,  170 
Set  square,  107-8 
Setting  out  page,  107-8 
Seventh-century    writing,    36 
Sewing  sections,  226-7 
Show-cards,  214-5 
Sienna,  burnt,  127 

raw,  125 
Silver  leaf,Pi47 


INDEX 


267 


Simeon  Metaphrastes,  86 
Sinopia,  120 

Sixteenth-century  writing,  83 
Size  and  raising  preparation,  158-9 

parchment,   140 
Sketch  book,  the  use  of  a,  166 
Skins  of  animals  as  writing  material,  28 
Slope  for  writing,  49 
Somme  le  Roi,  95 
Spacing  words  and  letters,  57 
Spanish  green,   118 
Spring  dividers,  107 

for  pen,  43 
Square  capitals,  33 
Stretching  paper,  154 

vellum,  154 
Stylus,  the  use  of  the,  25-6 
Success  in  illumination,  248 

Tablets,  writing,  28 
Tail-pieces,  illuminated,  235 

printed,  244-5 
Tea,  for  tinting  paper,  153 
Tee  square,  107-8 
Tenth-century  writing,  38,  62 
Texts  for  churches,  170 
Theophilus,  117 
Theophrastus,  115 
Thirteenth-century  illumination,  94 

writing,  41,  64 
Three-colour  blocks,  180-1 
Tinting  parchment,  122 
Title-page,  234,  238-40 
Tool,  the  influence  of  the,  23-31 

the  mastery  of  the,  42 
Trajan  column,  76 
Tube  colours,  131 
Turkey  quill,  44 
Twelfth-century  illumination,  93-4 

writing,  41,  63 

U,  THE  LETTER,  59 

Ultramarine,  121,  127-8 

ash,  128 

French,  128 
Umber,  burnt,  129 

raw,  129 
Uncials,  34 

mixed,  35 

half-,  36 

Irish,  36 

English,  37 

Y.  THE  LETTER,  59 


Vandyke  brown,  129 
Vellum,  152-6,  216-7 

limp,  binding  MSS.  with,  225-31 

reputed  origin  of,  28 
Verde  azzuro,  121 
Verde  terra,  115 
Verderame,  121 
Verdigris,   118,   121 
Vermilion,  117,  119,  125-7 
Vienna  Genesis,  85-6 
Violet,  cobalt,  128 
Virgil  MS.  in  the  Vatican,  85 
Viridian,  128 
Visigothic  writing,  39 
Vitruvius,  115 

Wedge-shaped  Characters,  25 
Westminster  Abbey,  Psalter  of,  94 
White  of  egg,  118-9 

used  for  gilding,  I39-41.  x43 
White  lead,  121,  130 
White  pigments,  129-30 
Winchester  School  of  Illumination,  90 
Window  tickets,  213 
Wood-engraving,  238 
Words,  forming,  54-9 
Workmanship,   good,   255 
Writer,  sable,  83,  212 
Writing,  beautiful,  the  foundation  of 
true  illumination,  23-4,  248 

expression  in  the,  223 

majuscule,  32 

cursive,  32 

minuscule,  38 

Lombardic,  38-9 

Visigothic,  39 

Merovingian,  39-40 

Carlovingian,  40 

fourth-century,  33 

fifth-century,  33-5 

seventh-century,  36 

eighth  and  ninth-century,  38-9 

tenth-century,  38,  62 

twelfth-century,   41,  63 

thirteenth-century,   41,   64 

fourteenth-century,  65 

fifteenth-century,  41,  79-80 

sixteenth-century,  83 

Yellow  pigments,  124 
Yolk  of  egg,  119 

Zafferano,  121 
Zinc  white,  129-30 


PRINTED  BY   THE  ANCHOR  PRESS,  LTD.,  T1PTREE,   ESSEX,   ENGLAND. 


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